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Patrizia Fattori - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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common neural substrate for processing depth and direction signals for reaching in the monkey medial posterior parietal cortex
Cerebral Cortex, 2014Co-Authors: Kostas Hadjidimitrakis, Claudio Galletti, F Bertozzi, Rossella Breveglieri, Annalisa Bosco, Patrizia FattoriAbstract:Many psychophysical studies suggest that target depth and direction during reaches are processed independently, but the neurophysiological support to this view is so far limited. Here, we investigated the representation of reach depth and direction by single neurons in area V6A of the medial posterior parietal cortex (PPC) of macaques, while a fixation-to-reach task in 3-dimensional (3D) space was performed. We found that, in a substantial percentage of V6A neurons, depth and direction signals jointly influenced fixation, planning, and Arm Movement-related activity. While target depth and direction were equally encoded during fixation, depth tuning became stronger during Arm Movement planning, execution, and target holding. The spatial tuning of fixation activity was often maintained across epochs, and depth tuning persisted more than directional tuning across epochs. These findings support for the first time the existence of a common neural substrate for the encoding of target depth and direction during reaches in the PPC. Present results also highlight the presence of several types of V6A cells that process independently or jointly signals about eye position and Arm Movement planning and execution in order to control reaches in 3D space. A conceptual framework for the processing of depth and direction for reaching is proposed.
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three dimensional eye position signals shape both peripersonal space and Arm Movement activity in the medial posterior parietal cortex
Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 2012Co-Authors: Kostas Hadjidimitrakis, Rossella Breveglieri, Annalisa Bosco, Patrizia FattoriAbstract:Research conducted over the last decades has established that the medial part of posterior parietal cortex is crucial for controlling visually guided actions in human and non-human primates. Within this cortical sector there is area V6A, a crucial node of the parietofrontal network involved in Arm Movement control in both monkeys and humans. However, the encoding of action-in-depth by V6A cells had been not studied till recently. Recent neurophysiological studies show the existence in V6A neurons of signals related to the distance of targets from the eyes. These signals are integrated, often at the level of single cells, with information about the direction of gaze, thus encoding spatial location in 3D space. Moreover, 3D eye position signals seem to be further exploited at two additional levels of neural processing: a) in determining whether targets are located in the peripersonal space or not, and b) in shaping the spatial tuning of Arm Movement related activity towards reachable targets. These findings are in line with studies in putative homolog regions in humans and together point to a role of medial posterior parietal cortex in encoding both the vergence angle of the eyes and peripersonal space. Besides this role in spatial encoding also in depth, several findings demonstrate the involvement of this cortical sector in non-spatial processes.
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Arm Movement related neurons in the visual area v6a of the macaque superior parietal lobule
European Journal of Neuroscience, 1997Co-Authors: Claudio Galletti, Patrizia Fattori, Dieter F Kutz, Piero Paolo BattagliniAbstract:Area V6A is a cortical visual area located in the posterior face of the superior parietal lobule in the macaque monkey. It contains visual neurons as well as neurons not activated by any kind of visual stimulation. The aim of this study was to look for possible features able to activate these latter neurons. We tested 70 non-visual V6A neurons. Forty-three of them showed an Arm Movement-related neural discharge due to somatosensory stimulation and/or skeletomotor activity of the upper limbs of the animal. The Arm Movement-related neural discharge started before the onset of Arm Movement, often before the earliest electromyographic activity. Thus, although the discharge is probably supported by proprioceptive and tactile inputs it is not fully dependent on them. Arm Movement-related neurons of area V6A seem to be well equipped for integrating motor signals related to Arm Movements with somatosensory signals evoked by those Movements. Taking into account also the visual characteristics of V6A neurons, it seems likely that area V6A as a whole is involved in the visual guiding of reaching.
Paul W Hodges - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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activation of the striated urethral sphincter to maintain continence during dynamic tasks in healthy men
Neurourology and Urodynamics, 2012Co-Authors: Ryan E Stafford, Ruth Sapsford, James A Ashtonmiller, Paul W HodgesAbstract:Aims Function of the striated urethral sphincter (SUS) in men is debated. Current evidence is limited to electromyographic (EMG) recordings made with concentric needle electrodes in supine. Understanding of SUS function requires investigation of SUS EMG activity using new recording techniques in dynamic tasks. The aim of this study was to evaluate timing and amplitude of SUS EMG at rest and during dynamic tasks that challenge continence by increasing intra-abdominal pressure (IAP). Methods: Investigative study of five healthy men aged 25-39 years. Measurements included SUS, anal sphincter (AS), and transversus abdominus (TrA) EMG, and IAP (recorded with a nasogastric pressure catheter). Participants performed four tasks that challenged postural control in standing (single and repetitive Arm Movement, stepping and load catching). Results: IAP amplitude and SUS activity were linearly correlated during repetitive Arm Movement (R(2): 0.67-0.88). During stepping SUS EMG onset preceded the IAP increase, but followed it with rapid Arm Movements. When the trunk was loaded unpredictably onset of SUS generally followed the increase in IAP. The modest sample size meant only younger men were tested. Future studies might investigate healthy older men or those with certain pathologies. Conclusions: Data show that SUS activity increases proportionally with IAP. This provided evidence that SUS contributes to continence when IAP is increased, and that postural control of the trunk involves activation of this muscle. Neurourol. Urodynam. 31:36-43, 2012. (C) 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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postural recovery following voluntary Arm Movement is impaired in people with chronic low back pain
Gait & Posture, 2011Co-Authors: Nicola W Mok, Sandra G Brauer, Paul W HodgesAbstract:Study design: Recovery of postural equilibrium following bilateral voluntary Arm Movement was evaluated using a case-control study, with 13 subjects with chronic LBP and 13 age- and gendermatched control subjects. Objectives: To evaluate control of the centre-of-pressure (COP), as a marker of the quality of control of postural equilibrium associated with voluntary Arm Movements, in people with and without LBP. Summary of background data. When healthy individuals perform rapid voluntary Arm Movements, small spinal Movements (preparatory Movement) opposite to the direction of the reactive moments precede voluntary Arm Movements. Evaluation of trunk Movement in people with LBP suggests that this strategy is used infrequently in this population and is associated with an increased spinal displacement following Arm flexion. As the preparatory spinal Movement was also thought to be an anticipatory mechanism limiting postural perturbation caused by Arm Movements, we hypothesized that LBP subjects would have compromised control of postural equilibrium following Arm flexion. Methods: Subjects performed bilateral voluntary rapid Arm flexion while standing on support surface of different dimensions with eyes opened or closed. Results: Results indicated that people with LBP consistently took longer to recover postural equilibrium and made more postural adjustments in different stance conditions. However, there was no increase in the excursion of the COP during the recovery period in the LBP group. Conclusion: These data suggest that while COP is tightly controlled during postural recovery, the finetuning of the control of postural equilibrium is compromised in people with LBP. Postural control dysfunctions should be considered in the management of chronic low back pain.
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postural and respiratory functions of the pelvic floor muscles
Neurourology and Urodynamics, 2007Co-Authors: Paul W Hodges, Ruth Sapsford, Liset H M PengelAbstract:Aims Due to their contribution to modulation of intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) and stiffness of the sacroiliac joints, the pelvic floor muscles (PFM) have been argued to provide a contribution to control of the lumbar spine and pelvis. Furthermore, as IAP is modulated during respiration this is likely to be accompanied by changes in PFM activity. Methods In order to evaluate the postural and respiratory function of the PFM, recordings of anal and vaginal electromyographic activity (EMG) were made with surface electrodes during single and repetitive Arm Movements that challenge the stability of the spine. EMG recordings were also made during respiratory tasks: quiet breathing and breathing with increased dead-space to induce hypercapnoea. Results EMG activity of the PFM was increased in advance of deltoid muscle activity as a component of the pre-programmed anticipatory postural activity. This activity was independent of the direction of Arm Movement. During repetitive Movements, PFM EMG was tonic with phasic bursts at the frequency of Arm Movement. This activity was related to the peak acceleration of the Arm, and therefore the amplitude of the reactive forces imposed on the spine. Respiratory activity was observed for the anal and vaginal EMG and was primarily expiratory. When subjects moved the Arm repetitively while breathing, PFM EMG was primarily modulated in association with Arm Movement with little respiratory modulation. Conclusions This study provides evidence that the PFM contribute to both postural and respiratory functions.
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feedforward contraction of transversus abdominis is not influenced by the direction of Arm Movement
Experimental Brain Research, 1997Co-Authors: Paul W Hodges, Carolyn A RichardsonAbstract:Because the structure of the spine is inherently unstable, muscle activation is essential for the maintenance of trunk posture and intervertebral control when the limbs are moved. To investigate how the central nervous system deals with this situation the temporal components of the response of the muscles of the trunk were evaluated during rapid limb Movement performed in response to a visual stimulus. Fine-wire electromyography (EMG) electrodes were inserted into transversus abdominis (TrA), obliquus internus abdominis (OI) and obliquus externus abdominis (OE) of 15 subjects under the guidance of real-time ultrasound imaging. Surface electrodes were placed over rectus abdominis (RA), lumbar multifidus (MF) and the three parts of deltoid. In a standing position, ten repetitions of shoulder flexion, abduction and extension were performed by the subjects as fast as possible in response to a visual stimulus. The onset of TrA EMG occurred in advance of deltoid irrespective of the Movement direction. The time to onset of EMG activity of OI, OE, RA and MF varied with the Movement direction, being activated earliest when the prime action of the muscle opposed the reactive forces associated with the specific limb Movement. It is postulated that the non-direction-specific contraction of TrA may be related to the control of trunk stability independent of the requirement for direction-specific control of the centre of gravity in relation to the base of support.
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inefficient muscular stabilization of the lumbar spine associated with low back pain a motor control evaluation of transversus abdominis
Spine, 1996Co-Authors: Paul W Hodges, Carolyn A RichardsonAbstract:Study Design. The contribution of transversus abdominis to spinal stabilization was evaluated indirectly in people with and without low back pain using an experimental model identifying the coordination of trunk muscles in response to a disturbance to the spine produced by Arm Movement.
Carolyn A Richardson - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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differences in postural control and Movement performance during goal directed reaching in children with developmental coordination disorder
Human Movement Science, 2002Co-Authors: Leanne M Johnston, Sandra G Brauer, Yvonne Burns, Carolyn A RichardsonAbstract:Poor upper-limb coordination is a common difficulty for children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). One hypothesis is that deviant muscle timing in proximal muscle groups results in poor postural and Movement control. The relationship between muscle timing, Arm motion and children's upper-limb coordination deficits has not previously been studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between functional difficulties with upper-limb motor skills and neuromuscular components of postural stability and coordination. Sixty-four children aged 8-10 years, 32 with DCD and 32 without DCD, participated in the study. The study investigated timing of muscle activity and resultant Arm Movement during a rapid, voluntary, goal-directed Arm Movement. Results showed that compared to children without DCD, children with DCD took significantly longer to respond to visual signals and longer to complete the goal-directed Movement. Children with DCD also demonstrated altered activity in postural muscles. In particular, shoulder muscles, except for serratus anterior, and posterior trunk muscles demonstrated early activation. Further, anterior trunk muscles demonstrated delayed activation. In children with DCD, anticipatory function was not present in three of the four anterior trunk muscles. These differences support the hypothesis that in children with DCD, altered postural muscle activity may contribute to poor proximal stability and consequently poor Arm Movement control when performing goal-directed Movement. These results have educational and functional implications for children at school and during activities of daily living and leisure activities and for clinicians assessing and treating children with DCD.
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postural control and Movement performance during upper limb tasks in children with developmental co ordination disorder dcd
4th National Paediatric Physiotherapy Conference, 2001Co-Authors: Leanne M Johnston, Sandra G Brauer, Yvonne Burns, Carolyn A RichardsonAbstract:At least 6% of primary school aged children present with DCD, where co-ordination is substantially below the normal range for the child’s age and intelligence. Motor skill difficulties negatively affect academic achievement, recreation and activities of daily living. Poor upper-limb co-ordination is a common difficulty for children with DCD. A possible cause of this problem is deviant muscle timing in proximal muscle groups, which results in poor postural and Movement control. While studies have been published investigating postural control in response to external perturbations, detail about postural muscle activity during voluntary Movement is limited even in children with normal motor development. No studies have investigated the relationship between muscle timing, resultant Arm motion and upper-limb coordination deficits. Objectives: To investigate the relationship between functional difficulties with upper-limb motor skills and neuromuscular components of postural stability and coordination. Specifically, to investigate onset-timing of muscle activity, timing of Arm Movement, and resultant three-dimensional (3D) Arm co-ordination during rapid, voluntary Arm Movement and to analyse differences arising due to the presence of DCD. This study is part of a larger research program investigating postural stability and control of upper limb Movement in children. Design: A controlled, cross-sectional study of differences between children with and without DCD. Methods: This study included 50 children aged eight to 10 years (25 with DCD and 25 without DCD). Children participated in assessment of motor skills according to the Movement ABC Test and a laboratory study of rapid, voluntary Arm Movements. Parameters investigated included muscle activation timing of shoulder and trunk muscles (surface electromyography), Arm Movement timing (light sensor) and resultant 3D Arm motion (Fastrak). Results: A MANOVA is being used to analyse between-group differences. Preliminary results indicate children with DCD demonstrate altered muscle timing during a rapid Arm raise when compared with the control group of children. Conclusion: Differences in proximal muscle timing in children with DCD support the hypothesis that altered proximal muscle activity may contribute to poor proximal stability and consequently poor Arm Movement control. This has implications for clinical physiotherapy.
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feedforward contraction of transversus abdominis is not influenced by the direction of Arm Movement
Experimental Brain Research, 1997Co-Authors: Paul W Hodges, Carolyn A RichardsonAbstract:Because the structure of the spine is inherently unstable, muscle activation is essential for the maintenance of trunk posture and intervertebral control when the limbs are moved. To investigate how the central nervous system deals with this situation the temporal components of the response of the muscles of the trunk were evaluated during rapid limb Movement performed in response to a visual stimulus. Fine-wire electromyography (EMG) electrodes were inserted into transversus abdominis (TrA), obliquus internus abdominis (OI) and obliquus externus abdominis (OE) of 15 subjects under the guidance of real-time ultrasound imaging. Surface electrodes were placed over rectus abdominis (RA), lumbar multifidus (MF) and the three parts of deltoid. In a standing position, ten repetitions of shoulder flexion, abduction and extension were performed by the subjects as fast as possible in response to a visual stimulus. The onset of TrA EMG occurred in advance of deltoid irrespective of the Movement direction. The time to onset of EMG activity of OI, OE, RA and MF varied with the Movement direction, being activated earliest when the prime action of the muscle opposed the reactive forces associated with the specific limb Movement. It is postulated that the non-direction-specific contraction of TrA may be related to the control of trunk stability independent of the requirement for direction-specific control of the centre of gravity in relation to the base of support.
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inefficient muscular stabilization of the lumbar spine associated with low back pain a motor control evaluation of transversus abdominis
Spine, 1996Co-Authors: Paul W Hodges, Carolyn A RichardsonAbstract:Study Design. The contribution of transversus abdominis to spinal stabilization was evaluated indirectly in people with and without low back pain using an experimental model identifying the coordination of trunk muscles in response to a disturbance to the spine produced by Arm Movement.
David J. Reinkensmeyer - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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understanding and treating Arm Movement impairment after chronic brain injury progress with the Arm guide
Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 2014Co-Authors: David J. Reinkensmeyer, Leonard E Kahn, Michele Averbuch, A Mckennacole, Brian D Schmit, William Z RymerAbstract:Significant potential exists for enhancing physical rehabilitation following neurologic injury through the use of robotic and mechatronic devices (or "rehabilitators"). We review the development of a rehabilitator (the "Arm Guide") to diagnose and treat Arm Movement impairment following stroke and other brain injuries. As a diagnostic tool, the Arm Guide provides a basis for evaluation of several key motor impairments, including abnormal tone, incoordination, and weakness. As a therapeutic tool, the device provides a means to implement and evaluate active assist therapy for the Arm. Initial results with three stroke subjects demonstrate that such therapy can produce quantifiable benefits in the chronic hemiparetic Arm. Directions for future research regarding the efficacy and practicality of rehabilitators are discussed.
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Arm training with t wrex after chronic stroke preliminary results of a randomized controlled trial
IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, 2007Co-Authors: S J Housman, R.j. Sanchez, Tariq Rahman, David J. ReinkensmeyerAbstract:This study presents preliminary results of a randomized controlled trial comparing a novel passive Arm orthosis training system, the Therapy Wilmington Robotic Exoskeleton (T-WREX), with conventional self-directed upper extremity exercises. Chronic stroke survivors (n = 23) with moderate to severe upper limb hemiparesis trained three times per week for eight weeks with minimal supervision from an occupational therapist. Both groups demonstrated significant improvements in Arm Movement ability according to the Fugl-Meyer (3.7 point mean improvement in T-WREX group, p = 0.001, and 2.7 point improvement in control group, p = 0.003). Individuals who completed T-WREX training also demonstrated significant gains in self-rated quality of Arm Movement on the Motor Activity Log (p=0.05), and showed a trend towards greater gains on all clinical measures, although this trend was not significant at the current study size. Post-treatment surveys revealed a subjective preference for T-WREX training over conventional gravity-supported exercises. These preliminary results suggest that the T-WREX is a safe device feasible for clinical use, and effective in enhancing upper extremity motor recovery and patient motivation. Next steps are discussed.
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automating Arm Movement training following severe stroke functional exercises with quantitative feedback in a gravity reduced environment
IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, 2006Co-Authors: R.j. Sanchez, S. Rao, Steven C Cramer, James E. Bobrow, R. Smith, P Shah, Tariq Rahman, J Liu, David J. ReinkensmeyerAbstract:An important goal in rehabilitation engineering is to develop technology that allows individuals with severe motor impairment to practice Arm Movement without continuous supervision from a rehabilitation therapist. This paper describes the development of such a system, called Therapy WREX or ("T-WREX"). The system consists of an orthosis that assists in Arm Movement across a large workspace, a grip sensor that detects hand grip pressure, and software that simulates functional activities. The Arm orthosis is an instrumented, adult-sized version of the Wilmington Robotic Exoskeleton (WREX), which is a five degrees-of-freedom mechanism that passively counterbalances the weight of the Arm using elastic bands. After providing a detailed design description of T-WREX, this paper describes two pilot studies of the system's capabilities. The first study demonstrated that individuals with chronic stroke whose Arm function is compromised in a normal gravity environment can perform reaching and drawing Movements while using T-WREX. The second study demonstrated that exercising the affected Arm of five people with chronic stroke with T-WREX over an eight week period improved unassisted Movement ability (mean change in Fugl-Meyer score was 5 points plusmn2 SD; mean change in range of motion of reaching was 10%, p<0.001). These results demonstrate the feasibility of automating upper-extremity rehabilitation therapy for people with severe stroke using passive gravity assistance, a grip sensor, and simple virtual reality software
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robot assisted reaching exercise promotes Arm Movement recovery in chronic hemiparetic stroke a randomized controlled pilot study
Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation, 2006Co-Authors: David J. Reinkensmeyer, Leonard E Kahn, Michele L Zygman, Zev W RymerAbstract:Background and purpose Providing active assistance to complete desired Arm Movements is a common technique in upper extremity rehabilitation after stroke. Such active assistance may improve recovery by affecting somatosensory input, motor planning, spasticity or soft tissue properties, but it is labor intensive and has not been validated in controlled trials. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of robotically administered active-assistive exercise and compare those with free reaching voluntary exercise in improving Arm Movement ability after chronic stroke.
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A pneumatic robot for re-training Arm Movement after stroke: Rationale and mechanical design
Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, 2005Co-Authors: R.j. Sanchez, S. Cramer, S. Rao, T. Rahman, Eric Wolbrecht, David J. Reinkensmeyer, James E. Bobrow, R. Smith, P ShahAbstract:This paper describes the development of a pneumatic robot for functional Movement training of the Arm and hand after stroke. The device is based on the Wilmington Robotic Exoskeleton (WREX), a passive, mobile Arm support developed for children with Arm weakness caused by a debilitative condition. Previously, we scaled WREX for use by adults, instrumented it with potentiometers, and incorporated a simple grip strength sensor. The resulting passive device (Training WREX or "T-WREX") allows individuals with severe motor impairment to practice functional Movements (reaching, eating, and washing) in a simple virtual reality environment called Java Therapy 2.0. However, the device is limited since it can only apply a fixed pattern of assistive forces to the Arm. In addition, its gravity balance function does not restore full range of motion. Therefore, we are also developing a robotic version of WREX named Pneu-WREX, which can apply a wide range of forces to the Arm during naturalistic Movements. Pneu-WREX uses pneumatic actuators, non-linear force control, and passive counter-balancing to allow application of a wide range of forces during naturalistic upper extremity Movements. Besides a detailed description of the mechanical design and kinematics of Pneu-WREX, we present results from a survey of 29 therapists on the use of such a robotic device.
Claudio Galletti - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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common neural substrate for processing depth and direction signals for reaching in the monkey medial posterior parietal cortex
Cerebral Cortex, 2014Co-Authors: Kostas Hadjidimitrakis, Claudio Galletti, F Bertozzi, Rossella Breveglieri, Annalisa Bosco, Patrizia FattoriAbstract:Many psychophysical studies suggest that target depth and direction during reaches are processed independently, but the neurophysiological support to this view is so far limited. Here, we investigated the representation of reach depth and direction by single neurons in area V6A of the medial posterior parietal cortex (PPC) of macaques, while a fixation-to-reach task in 3-dimensional (3D) space was performed. We found that, in a substantial percentage of V6A neurons, depth and direction signals jointly influenced fixation, planning, and Arm Movement-related activity. While target depth and direction were equally encoded during fixation, depth tuning became stronger during Arm Movement planning, execution, and target holding. The spatial tuning of fixation activity was often maintained across epochs, and depth tuning persisted more than directional tuning across epochs. These findings support for the first time the existence of a common neural substrate for the encoding of target depth and direction during reaches in the PPC. Present results also highlight the presence of several types of V6A cells that process independently or jointly signals about eye position and Arm Movement planning and execution in order to control reaches in 3D space. A conceptual framework for the processing of depth and direction for reaching is proposed.
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Arm Movement related neurons in the visual area v6a of the macaque superior parietal lobule
European Journal of Neuroscience, 1997Co-Authors: Claudio Galletti, Patrizia Fattori, Dieter F Kutz, Piero Paolo BattagliniAbstract:Area V6A is a cortical visual area located in the posterior face of the superior parietal lobule in the macaque monkey. It contains visual neurons as well as neurons not activated by any kind of visual stimulation. The aim of this study was to look for possible features able to activate these latter neurons. We tested 70 non-visual V6A neurons. Forty-three of them showed an Arm Movement-related neural discharge due to somatosensory stimulation and/or skeletomotor activity of the upper limbs of the animal. The Arm Movement-related neural discharge started before the onset of Arm Movement, often before the earliest electromyographic activity. Thus, although the discharge is probably supported by proprioceptive and tactile inputs it is not fully dependent on them. Arm Movement-related neurons of area V6A seem to be well equipped for integrating motor signals related to Arm Movements with somatosensory signals evoked by those Movements. Taking into account also the visual characteristics of V6A neurons, it seems likely that area V6A as a whole is involved in the visual guiding of reaching.
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short communication Arm Movement related neurons in the visual area v6a of the macaque superior parietal lobule
1997Co-Authors: Claudio Galletti, Dieter F Kutz, Piero Paolo Battaglini, S DonatoAbstract:Area V6A is a cortical visual area located in the posterior face of the superior parietal lobule in the macaque monkey. It contains visual neurons as well as neurons not activated by any kind of visual stimulation. The aim of this study was to look for possible features able to activate these latter neurons. We tested 70 non-visual V6A neurons. Forty-three of them showed an Arm Movement-related neural discharge due to somatosensory stimulation and/or skeletomotor activity of the upper limbs of the animal. The Arm Movement-related neural discharge started before the onset of Arm Movement, often before the earliest electromyographic activity. Thus, although the discharge is probably supported by proprioceptive and tactile inputs it is not fully dependent on them. Arm Movement-related neurons of area V6A seem to be well equipped for integrating motor signals related to Arm Movements with somatosensory signals evoked by those Movements. Taking into account also the visual characteristics of V6A neurons, it seems likely that area V6A as a whole is involved in the visual guiding of reaching
