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Michael E. Fraker - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Risk Assessment and Anti-Predator Behavior of Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica) Tadpoles: A Comparison with Green Frog (Rana clamitans) Tadpoles
Journal of Herpetology, 2010Co-Authors: Michael E. FrakerAbstract:This study combines three experiments that identify how Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica) tadpoles assess risk from chemical Cues produced by larval dragonflies (Anax junius) preying on conspecifics. I also compare the results to previous studies using Green Frog (Rana clamitans) tadpoles. The results suggest that Wood Frog tadpoles largely assess predation risk through Anax chemical Cues similarly to Green Frog tadpoles. This is to be expected because the tadpoles are congeneric and both face predation from Anax in the field. However, their behavioral response to a particular level of perceived risk differs. Wood Frog tadpoles reduced their total activity (swimming and feeding) for a shorter time than Green Frog tadpoles. Wood Frog tadpoles also reduced their feeding activity more strongly than their swimming activity during Cue Exposure. I relate the differences between the behavioral responses of Wood Frog and Green Frog tadpoles to differences in their life-history strategies.
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The effect of hunger on the strength and duration of the antipredator behavioral response of green frog (Rana clamitans) tadpoles
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 2008Co-Authors: Michael E. FrakerAbstract:The activity level of prey reflects a trade-off between predation risk and foraging gain. A number of theoretical and empirical studies have shown that a prey's energetic state or the level of its resource should influence this trade-off (i.e., what the optimal activity level at a level of predation risk is). Here, I show that the energetic state of prey may also influence the duration of their antipredator behavioral response. Green frog tadpoles (Rana clamitans) reduced their activity level for a shorter time during Exposure to the chemical Cue of predatory larval dragonflies (Anax spp.) as their time since last feeding increased (i.e., as their energetic state decreased). Interestingly, the tadpoles strongly reduced their activity level upon Cue Exposure in all treatments. Thus, the relative activity level of tadpoles at different energetic states varied over time.
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The dynamics of predation risk assessment : responses of anuran larvae to chemical Cues of predators
Journal of Animal Ecology, 2008Co-Authors: Michael E. FrakerAbstract:1. While the antipredator behaviour of prey has been well studied, little is known about the rules governing the predation risk assessment of prey. In this study, I measured the activity levels of predator-naive green frog (Rana clamitans) tadpoles during and after Exposures to the chemical Cue of predatory larval dragonflies (Anax spp.). I then used the lengths of the time lags from the end of the Cue Exposures until the tadpoles returned to a control level of activity as an index of the perceived risk of the tadpoles. 2. While tadpoles always responded upon Exposure to the Anax chemical Cue by strongly reducing their activity level, their perceived risk increased asymptotically over time during the initial period of the Cue Exposure. Tadpoles of all size classes perceived increasing risk in proportion to chemical Cue concentration, but the length of time that tadpoles responded during Cue Exposure and the length of their post-Exposure time lags decreased with increasing body mass. 3. The results suggest that the perceived risk of green frog tadpoles varies over time and does not correspond directly to their behavioural response (i.e. activity level). However, their perceived risk does appear to vary in accordance with the predation risk associated with the Anax chemical Cue and the reliability of the information from the Cue, and therefore may be predictable.
Anita Jansen - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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expectancy violation reduction of food Cue reactivity and less eating in the absence of hunger after one food Cue Exposure session for overweight and obese women
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 2016Co-Authors: Ghislaine Schyns, Anne Roefs, Sandra Mulkens, Anita JansenAbstract:The present study investigated whether a single-session of food Cue Exposure for overweight women would decrease 'if CS then US' expectancies, Cue reactivity and eating in the absence of hunger (EAH). EAH was measured in a behavioural paradigm that enabled to also investigate whether the Cue Exposure effects were specific for exposed foods or would generalise to food items that were not present during Exposure. Overweight women were randomly assigned to either the Cue Exposure intervention or a control intervention that focused on body image. In line with the hypotheses, results showed that Cue Exposure induced a significant decrease in 'if CS then US' expectancies, in contrast to the control intervention. It was also found that, compared to the control intervention, desires to eat initially increased during Cue Exposure while gradual extinction was observed towards the end of the intervention. No extinction of increased salivation responses was found. Regarding EAH, the intake of the exposed food item was significantly less in the Exposure condition than in the control condition, whereas total caloric food intake was not different between conditions, indicating that Cue Exposure was effective in reducing intake but did not generalise to the intake of other food items.
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Cue reactivity during treatment and not impulsivity predicts an initial lapse after treatment in alcohol use disorders
Addictive Behaviors, 2014Co-Authors: Harilaos Papachristou, Chantal Nederkoorn, Janneke C A H Giesen, Anita JansenAbstract:Both Cue-elicited craving and impulsivity have been involved in alcohol misuse. However, their role in relapse has not been very clear. In the present study, we ask whether Cue-elicited craving, impulsivity, and their interaction term predict a lapse in problem drinkers. Participants (n=20) were former patients of the clinic, U-Center, in the Netherlands, who had completed a six-week alcohol treatment program and had an abstinence goal. While in treatment, they underwent a Cue Exposure paradigm in a real alcohol-related setting and their trait impulsivity was measured with the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale version 11 (BIS-11). During the follow-up assessment, patients were contacted again and asked about their alcohol drinking behavior during the first three months after the end of the treatment program. It was found that higher craving and lower trait impulsivity levels are associated with a higher probability of a lapse.
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eating behavior in response to food Cue Exposure examining the Cue reactivity and counteractive control models
Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 2009Co-Authors: Jennifer S Coelho, Anita Jansen, Anne Roefs, Chantal NederkoornAbstract:Many studies have demonstrated that those high in weight-related concerns eat more after food-Cue Exposure, which is consistent with predictions of the Cue-reactivity model. However, the counteractive-control model predicts that Exposure to fattening foods activates dieting-related goals and behavior in weight-concerned individuals. Although these models seem incongruous, the authors hypothesized that the salience of the Cue could represent a critical factor in determining which model is activated. The authors predicted that attending to salient food Cues would result in increased intake (Cue reactivity) in individuals with high weight-related concerns, whereas incidental food-Cue Exposure would result in decreased intake (counteractive control), relative to control Exposure. The authors employed a 3 (attended vs. incidental vs. control Cue) x 2 (low vs. high weight-related concerns) design. As expected, participants with high weight-related concerns who attended to a food Cue ate more than did both those with high weight-related concerns in the control condition and those with low weight-related concerns in the attended-Cue condition; however, intake of individuals with high weight-related concerns who were exposed to the incidental Cue did not differ from that of those in the control condition. The manner of food-Cue presentation may be a critical factor in determining eating behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).
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food Cue Exposure and body image satisfaction the moderating role of bmi and dietary restraint
Body Image, 2009Co-Authors: Annekathrin Fett, Anne Roefs, Paul Lattimore, Nicole Geschwind, Anita JansenAbstract:Effects of Cue Exposure to high and low-caloric food on body image satisfaction and the moderating role of body mass index (BMI) and restraint were investigated in 77 lean unrestrained, lean restrained and overweight restrained females. Body (BS) and weight satisfaction (WS) were assessed before and after the Cue Exposure. Lean restrained participants were significantly less satisfied with their weight after Cue Exposure to high-caloric foods in comparison to Cue Exposure to low-caloric foods, whereas no such effect was present in overweight restrained and lean unrestrained participants. Low-caloric food Cues did not influence WS. Food Cues had a nonsignificant trend effect on BS. Yet, only lean unrestrained participants experienced significantly more BS in response to food Cue Exposure.
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a learning model of binge eating Cue reactivity and Cue Exposure
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1998Co-Authors: Anita JansenAbstract:In the present article, a learning model of binge eating is presented. It has been hypothesized that, parallel to drug intake, the craving and excessive food intake of binge eaters is Cue controlled. Research in support of the model is reviewed and a series of predictions about clinical and non-clinical issues is derived from the model. Amongst other things, the model predicts that binge eating might be successfully treated with Cue Exposure and response prevention. Practical issues are discussed and preliminary pilot studies on Cue Exposure for bingers are reviewed.
Thomas H Brandon - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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augmented reality for smoking cessation development and usability study
Jmir mhealth and uhealth, 2020Co-Authors: Christine Vinci, Karen O Brandon, Marloes Kleinjan, Laura M Hernandez, Leslie E Sawyer, Jody Haneke, Steven K Sutton, Thomas H BrandonAbstract:Background: The recent widespread availability of augmented reality via smartphone offers an opportunity to translate Cue Exposure therapy for smoking cessation from the laboratory to the real world. Despite significant reductions in the smoking rates in the last decade, approximately 13.7% of the adults in the United States continue to smoke. Smoking-related Cue Exposure has demonstrated promise as an adjuvant therapy in the laboratory, but practical limitations have prevented its success in the real world. Augmented reality technology presents an innovative approach to overcome these limitations. Objective: The aim of this study was to develop a smartphone app that presents smoking-related augmented reality images for Cue Exposure. Smokers provided feedback on the images and reported on the perceived urge to smoke, qualities of reality/coexistence, and general feedback about quality and functioning. The feedback was used to refine the augmented reality images within the app. Methods: In collaboration with an augmented reality design company, we developed 6 smoking-related images (cigarette, lighter, ashtray, lit cigarette in ashtray, etc) and 6 neutral images similar in size or complexity for comparison (pen, eraser, notebook, soda bottle with droplets, etc). Ten smokers completed a survey of demographic characteristics, smoking history and behavior, dependence on nicotine, motivation to quit smoking, and familiarity with augmented reality technology. Then, participants viewed each augmented reality image and provided ratings on 10-point Likert scales for urge to smoke and reality/coexistence of the image into the scene. Participants were also queried with open-ended questions regarding the features of the images. Results: Of the 10 participants, 5 (50%) had experienced augmented reality prior to the laboratory visit, but only 4 of those 5 participants used augmented reality at least weekly. Although the sample was small (N=10), smokers reported significantly higher urge to smoke after viewing the smoking-related augmented reality images (median 4.58, SD 3.49) versus the neutral images (median 1.42, SD 3.01) (Z=–2.14, P=.03; d=0.70). The average reality and coexistence ratings of the images did not differ between smoking-related and neutral images (all P>.29). Augmented reality images were found on average to be realistic (mean [SD] score 6.49 [3.11]) and have good environmental coexistence (mean [SD] score 6.93 [3.04]) and user coexistence (mean [SD] score 6.38 [3.27]) on the 10-point scale. Participant interviews revealed some areas of excellence (eg, details of the lit cigarette) and areas for improvement (eg, stability of images, lighting). Conclusions: All images were generally perceived as being realistic and well-integrated into the environment. However, the smoking augmented reality images produced higher urge to smoke than the neutral augmented reality images. In total, our findings support the potential utility of augmented reality for Cue Exposure therapy. Future directions and next steps are discussed.
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testing augmented reality for eliciting Cue provoked urges to smoke toward moving Cue Exposure into the real world
Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 2020Co-Authors: Karen O Brandon, Christine Vinci, Marloes Kleinjan, Laura M Hernandez, Leslie E Sawyer, Steven K Sutton, Thomas H BrandonAbstract:Background Cue Exposure for extinguishing conditioned urges to smoking Cues has been promising in the laboratory, but difficult to implement in natural environments. The recent availability of augmented reality (AR) via smartphone provides an opportunity to overcome this limitation. Testing the ability of AR to elicit Cue-provoked urges to smoke (i.e., Cue reactivity [CR]) is the first step to systemically testing the efficacy of AR for Cue Exposure therapy. Objectives To test CR to smoking-related AR Cues compared to neutral AR Cues, and compared to in vivo Cues. Methods A 2 x 2 within-subject design comparing Cue content (smoking vs. neutral) and presentation modality (AR vs. in vivo) on urge response. Seventeen smokers viewed six smoking-related and six neutral Cues via AR smartphone app and also six smoking and six neutral in vivo Cues. Participants rated their urge to smoke and reality/co-existence of the Cue. Results Average urge to smoke was higher following smoking-related AR images (Median=7.50) than neutral images (Median=3.33) (Z=-3.44; P=.001; d=1.37). Similarly, average urge ratings for in vivo smoking-related Cues (Median=8.12) were higher than for neutral Cues (Median=2.12) (Z=-3.44; P=.001; d=1.64). Also, greater CR was observed for in vivo Cues than to AR Cues (Z=-2.67, P=.008; d=.36). AR Cues were generally perceived as being realistic and well-integrated. Conclusions CR was demonstrated with very large effect sizes in response to AR smoking Cues, although slightly smaller than with in vivo smoking Cues. This satisfies the first criterion for the potential use of AR for Exposure therapy.
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effects of extinction context and retrieval Cues on alcohol Cue reactivity among nonalcoholic drinkers
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2002Co-Authors: Bradley N Collins, Thomas H BrandonAbstract:Pavlovian conditioning models have influenced the development of Cue Exposure treatments for drug abuse. However, poor maintenance of extinction performance (renewal) after treatment is a common problem. A treatment-analogue experiment tested the role of context in renewal, as well as a potential strategy for reducing renewal. Seventy-eight social drinkers completed extinction trials to reduce saliva and urge reactivity to alcohol Cues and were randomly assigned to a renewal test in either the same context as extinction, a different context, or the different context containing a Cue from the extinction context (E-Cue). As predicted, the different context produced greater renewal than the same context and renewal was attenuated when the E-Cue was present. These results offer preliminary evidence for the context dependence of extinction to alcohol Cues and for the use of an extinction Cue to improve the generalizability of Exposure therapies.
Giuseppe Riva - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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translating virtual reality Cue Exposure therapy for binge eating into a real world setting an uncontrolled pilot study
Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2021Co-Authors: Katherine Nameth, Giuseppe Riva, Theresa Brown, Kim Bullock, Sarah Adler, Debra L Safer, Cristin D RunfolaAbstract:Binge-eating disorder (BED) and bulimia nervosa (BN) have adverse psychological and medical consequences. Innovative interventions, like the integration of virtual reality (VR) with Cue-Exposure therapy (VR-CET), enhance outcomes for refractory patients compared to cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). Little is known about the feasibility and acceptability of translating VR-CET into real-world settings. To investigate this question, adults previously treated for BED or BN with at least one objective or subjective binge episode/week were recruited from an outpatient university eating disorder clinic to receive up to eight weekly one-hour VR-CET sessions. Eleven of 16 (68.8%) eligible patients were enrolled; nine (82%) completed treatment; and 82% (9/11) provided follow-up data 7.1 (SD = 2.12) months post-treatment. Overall, participant and therapist acceptability of VR-CET was high. Intent-to-treat objective binge episodes (OBEs) decreased significantly from 3.3 to 0.9/week (p < 0.001). Post-treatment OBE 7-day abstinence rate for completers was 56%, with 22% abstinent for 28 days at follow-up. Among participants purging at baseline, episodes decreased from a mean of one to zero/week, with 100% abstinence maintained at follow-up. The adoption of VR-CET into real-world clinic settings appears feasible and acceptable, with a preliminary signal of effectiveness. Findings, including some loss of treatment gains during follow-up may inform future treatment development.
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Bringing Virtual Reality From Clinical Trials to Clinical Practice for the Treatment of Eating Disorders: An Example Using Virtual Reality Cue Exposure Therapy
JMIR Publications Inc., 2020Co-Authors: Theresa Brown, Giuseppe Riva, Katherine Nameth, Kim Bullock, Sarah Adler, Debra L Safer, Emily Nauman Vogel, Cara Bohon, Cristin D RunfolaAbstract:Novel treatment options for eating disorders (EDs) are critically needed to enhance treatment outcomes and reduce the rates of treatment dropouts. On average, only 50% of individuals receiving evidence-based care remit, whereas 24% drop out before treatment completion. One particularly promising direction involves integrating virtual reality (VR) with existing evidence-based treatments (EBTs) such as Cue Exposure therapy (CET). Across psychiatric disorders, VR-based interventions are demonstrating at least preliminary efficacy and noninferiority to traditional treatments. Furthermore, VR technology has become increasingly portable, resulting in improved acceptance, increased access, and reductions in cost. However, more efficient research processes may be needed to uncover the potential benefits of these rapid technological advances. This viewpoint paper reviews existing empirical support for integrating VR with EBTs (with a focus on its use with EDs) and proposes key next steps to more rapidly bring this innovative technology-based intervention into real-world clinic settings, as warranted. VR-CET for EDs is used to illustrate a suggested process for developing such treatment enhancements. We recommend following a deployment-focused model of intervention development and testing to enable rapid implementation of robust, practice-ready treatments. In addition, our review highlights the need for a comprehensive clinical protocol that supports clinicians and researchers in the implementation and testing of VR-CET and identifies key missing protocol components with rationale for their inclusion. Ultimately, this work may lead to a more complete understanding of the full potential of the applications and integrations of VR into mental health care globally.
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testing virtual reality based Cue Exposure software which Cue elicited responses best discriminate between patients with eating disorders and healthy controls
Eating and Weight Disorders-studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity, 2019Co-Authors: Joana Plasanjuanelo, Giuseppe Riva, Marta Ferrergarcia, Ferran Vilaltaabella, Antonios Dakanalis, Joan Ribassabate, Alexis Andreugracia, Fernando Fernandezaranda, Isabel Sanchezdiaz, Neli EscandonnagelAbstract:Virtual reality (VR) technologies have been proposed as a new tool able to improve on in vivo Exposure in patients with eating disorders. This study assessed the validity of a VR-based software for Cue Exposure therapy (CET) in people with bulimia nervosa (BN) and binge eating disorder (BED). Fifty eight outpatients (33 BN and 25 BED) and 135 healthy participants were exposed to 10 craved virtual foods and a neutral Cue in four experimental virtual environments (kitchen, dining room, bedroom, and cafeteria). After Exposure to each VR scenario, food craving and anxiety were assessed. The frequency/severity of episodes of uncontrollable overeating was also assessed and body mass index was measured prior to the Exposure. In both groups, craving and anxiety responses when exposed to the food-related virtual environments were significantly higher than in the neutral-Cue virtual environment. However, craving and anxiety levels were higher in the clinical group. Furthermore, Cue-elicited anxiety was better at discriminating between clinical and healthy groups than Cue-elicited craving. This study provides evidence of the ability of food-related VR environments to provoke food craving and anxiety responses in BN and BED patients and highlights the need to consider both responses during treatment. The results support the use of VR-CET in the treatment of eating disorder patients characterized by binge-eating and people with high bulimic symptoms.
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testing augmented reality for Cue Exposure in obese patients an exploratory study
Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 2016Co-Authors: Federica Pallavicini, Silvia Serino, Pietro Cipresso, Elisa Pedroli, Irene Alice Chicchi Giglioli, Alice Chirico, Gian Mauro Manzoni, Gianluca Castelnuovo, Enrico Molinari, Giuseppe RivaAbstract:Binge eating is one of the key behaviors in relation to the etiology and severity of obesity. Cue Exposure with response prevention consists of exposing patients to binge foods while actual eating is not allowed. Augmented reality (AR) has the potential to change the way Cue Exposure is administered, but very few prior studies have been conducted so far. Starting from these premises, this study was aimed to (a) investigate whether AR foods elicit emotional responses comparable to those produced by the real stimuli, (b) study differences between obese and control participants in terms of emotional responses to food, and (c) compare emotional responses to different categories of foods. To reach these goals, we assess in 15 obese (age, 44.6 ± 13 years; body mass index [BMI], 44.2 ± 8.1) and 15 control participants (age, 43.7 ± 12.8 years; BMI, 21.2 ± 1.4) the emotional responses to high-calorie (savory and sweet) and low-calorie food stimuli, presented through different Exposure conditions (real, photographic, and AR). The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was used for the assessment of state anxiety, and it was administered at the beginning and after the Exposure to foods, along with the Visual Analog Scale (VAS) for Hunger and Happiness. To assess the perceived pleasantness, the VAS for Palatability was administered after the Exposure to food stimuli. Heart rate, skin conductance response, and facial corrugator supercilii muscle activation were recorded. Although preliminary, the results showed that (a) AR food stimuli were perceived to be as palatable as real stimuli, and they also triggered a similar arousal response; (b) obese individuals showed lower happiness after the Exposure to food compared to control participants, with regard to both psychological and physiological responses; and (c) high-calorie savory (vs. low-calorie) food stimuli were perceived by all the participants to be more palatable, and they triggered a greater arousal response.
John H Krystal - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Cue elicited craving thalamic activity and physiological arousal in adult non dependent drinkers
Journal of Psychiatric Research, 2019Co-Authors: Wuyi Wang, Sheng Zhang, Simon Zhornitsky, Isha Dhingra, John H KrystalAbstract:Abstract Changes in physiological arousal frequently accompany cognitive and affective challenges. Many studies employed Cue Exposure paradigms to investigate the neural processes underlying Cue-elicited drug and alcohol craving. However, whether Cue-elicited craving relates to changes in physiological arousal and the neural bases underlying the potential relationship remain unclear. Here we examined cerebral Cue-related activations in relation to differences in skin conductance responses (SCR) recorded during alcohol vs. neutral Cue blocks in 61 non-dependent alcohol drinkers (30 men). Imaging and skin conductance data were collected and processed with published routines. Mediation analyses were conducted to examine the inter-relationship between regional activities, Cue-elicited craving, and SCR. The results showed higher SCR during alcohol than during neutral Cue Exposure. Despite no differences in drinking characteristics, men as compared to women demonstrated higher craving rating, and men but not women demonstrated a positive correlation between alcohol (vs. neutral) Cue-evoked craving and SCR. Further, across subjects, thalamic Cue activity was positively correlated with differences in SCR between alcohol and neutral Cue blocks in men but not in women. Mediation analyses suggested that thalamic activity mediated the correlation between craving and SCR across men and women, and in men but not women alone. These findings substantiate physiological and neural correlates of alcohol Cue response and suggest important sex differences in the physiological and neural processes of Cue evoked craving. Centered on the intralaminar and mediodorsal subregions, the thalamic correlate may represent a neural target for behavioral or pharmacological therapy to decrease Cue-elicited arousal and craving.
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differential brain response to alcohol Cue distractors across stages of alcohol dependence
Biological Psychology, 2013Co-Authors: Susanna L Fryer, John H Krystal, Kasper W Jorgensen, Elizabeth Yetter, Elsa Daurignac, Todd D Watson, Harshad Shanbhag, Daniel H MathalonAbstract:Altered attention to alcohol-related Cues is implicated in the craving and relapse cycle characteristic of alcohol dependence (ALC). Prior Cue reactivity studies typically invoke explicit attention to alcohol Cues, so the neural response underlying incidental Cue Exposure remains unclear. Here, we embed infrequent, task-irrelevant alcohol and non-alcohol Cues in an attention-demanding task, enabling evaluation of brain responses to distracting alcohol Cues. Alcohol dependent individuals, across illness phase (n=44), and controls (n=20) performed a Cue-reactivity fMRI target detection task. Significant Group-by-Distractor effects were observed in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), inferior parietal lobule, and amygdala. Controls and long-term abstainers increased recruitment of attention and cognitive control regions, while recent and long-term abstainers decreased limbic recruitment to alcohol distractors. Across phases of ALC, self-reported craving positively correlated with Cue-related activations in ventral ACC, medial prefrontal cortex, and cerebellum. Results indicate that brain responses elicited by incidental alcohol Cues differentiate phases of ALC.
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ampt effects on Cue induced craving for cocaine
American Journal on Addictions, 1996Co-Authors: Ismene L Petrakis, Dennis S Charney, Sally L Satel, Susan M Stine, Thomas R Kosten, Sheila Namanworth, John H KrystalAbstract:The authors evaluated the effect of an acute reduction in catecholamine synthesis, produced by alpha methyl para tyrosine (AMPT), on Cue-induced craving for cocaine in cocaine-dependent patients. AMPT and diphenhydramine were administered under double-blind conditions in a randomized, crossover design. Two Cue Exposure sessions were conducted 1 week apart. Self-reported assessments of cocaine craving were administered before and after Cue Exposure. AMPT, but not diphenhydramine, significantly decreased plasma levels of the dopamine metabolite, ho-movanillic acid and the norepinephrine metabolite, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethylene glycol. However, AMPT's effects on Cue-induced craving interacted with the test-day order in a complex manner.