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Donald J Brightsmith - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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predation on scarlet Macaw ara macao cyanoptera chicks by collared forest falcons micrastur semitorquatus in the maya biosphere reserve guatemala
Ornitologia Neotropical, 2017Co-Authors: Rony Garciaanleu, Donald J Brightsmith, Gabriela Poncesantizo, Steve Gulick, Janice D Boyd, Roan McnabAbstract:Abstract ∙ Through efforts of the Wildlife Conservation Society, poaching in an important Scarlet Macaw ( Ara macao cyanoptera ) nesting area in the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala had been reduced to zero by 2004. However, during long‐term monitoring of the nesting success of Scarlet Macaws in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, unexplained or unknown disappearance of chicks from nests was common despite the aforementioned reduction in poaching. To determine the cause of these disappearances, we installed five video camera surveillance systems in the nest cavities during the 2008 nesting season. Fatal attacks on chicks by Collared Forest Falcons ( Micrastur semitorquatus ) were recorded at three of these nests. This result highlights natural predation as a limiting factor for the recruitment of new individuals into the Scarlet Macaw population in the Maya Biosphere Reserve even when poaching is suppressed. Resumen ∙ Depredacion de pichones de Guacamayas Rojas ( Ara macao cyanoptera ) por Halcones Selvaticos de Collar ( Micrastur semitorquatus ) en la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya, Guatemala A traves de los esfuerzos de la Wildlife Conservation Society, el robo de pichones de Guacamayas Rojas ( Ara macao cyanoptera ) en una importante zona de anidacion de la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya en Guatemala ha sido reducido a cero desde el ano 2004. Sin embargo, durante el monitoreo a largo plazo del exito de anidacion de las guacamayas rojas en la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya, la desaparicion por razones desconocidas de pichones de los nidos fue comun a pesar de la reduccion de robos anteriormente mencionada. Para determinar la causa de estas desapariciones, instalamos cinco sistemas de vigilancia de camaras de video en los nidos durante la temporada de anidacion de 2008. En tres de estos cinco nidos se registraron ataques fatales contra pichones por parte del Halcon Selvatico de Collar ( Micrastur semitorquatus ). Este resultado destaca la depredacion natural como un factor limitante para el reclutamiento de nuevos individuos en la poblacion de Guacamayas Rojas en la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya, incluso cuando se suprime el robo de pichones.
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validation of non invasive genetic tagging in two large Macaw species ara macao and a chloropterus of the peruvian amazon
Conservation Genetics Resources, 2016Co-Authors: George Olah, Robert Heinsohn, Jose R Espinoza, Donald J Brightsmith, Rod PeakallAbstract:Genetic tagging is the unique identification of individuals by their DNA profile. This technique is well established in mammals, but it has not yet been widely adopted for birds. Extraction methods for minute amounts of DNA even enable the use of genetic tagging from non-invasive samples, like hair, scat, or feather. In this study, we evaluate the potential for non-invasive genetic tagging by using molted feathers of two sympatric Macaw species in the Peruvian Amazon. Correct species identification is critical when relying on feathers for genetic analysis, so we describe multilocus methods for species identification. We evaluate the quality of naturally shed Macaw feathers in tropical environmental conditions and present new primers for molecular sexing on the feather samples. We successfully validated 11 microsatellite markers for use in genetic tagging studies on large Macaws and confirmed that DNA from blood and feather samples yields equivalent population genetic patterns. The techniques described here can be implemented for other birds with higher conservation concern.
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an evaluation of primers for microsatellite markers in scarlet Macaw ara macao and their performance in a peruvian wild population
Conservation Genetics Resources, 2015Co-Authors: George Olah, Robert Heinsohn, Jose R Espinoza, Donald J Brightsmith, Rod PeakallAbstract:Primer pairs were designed for 41 di-nucleotide microsatellite loci identified from across the full genome of the Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao). We present the best 30 polymorphic loci with 5–22 alleles, 3–14 effective alleles and expected heterozygosities of 0.669–0.930. These markers will facilitate population genetic and conservation genetic studies on Macaws.
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nest site selection and efficacy of artificial nests for breeding success of scarlet Macaws ara macao macao in lowland peru
Journal for Nature Conservation, 2014Co-Authors: George Olah, Robert Heinsohn, Gabriela Vigo, Donald J BrightsmithAbstract:Psittacidae (parrots) have the most threatened species of any bird family in the world. Most parrots are obligate secondary cavity nesters, and can be limited in their breeding success by the availability and quality of nest hollows. However, nesting opportunities for parrots can be increased by provision of artificial nest boxes. The Tambopata Macaw Project has been studying the breeding ecology and natural history of the Scarlet Macaw Ara macao macao in the south-eastern Peruvian Amazon for over 20 years by monitoring natural nest hollows and two types of artificial nest (wooden and PVC). We present data for breeding success in natural and artificial nests over 12 consecutive breeding seasons. The aims of this study were to: (a) determine the nesting requirements and reproductive success of breeding Macaws; and, (b) compare the efficacy of the two types of artificial nests and natural nest cavities. Our data showed a high rate of reoccupation of successful nests in consecutive years and that nests in artificial and natural nests had very similar reproductive parameters. Our results indicate that artificial nest types can be used by conservation managers seeking to assist A. macao populations where nest hollows are in short supply, and that artificial nests can contribute important data to natural history studies of species where access to natural nests is limited.
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philornis sp bot fly larvae in free living scarlet Macaw nestlings and a new technique for their extraction
Veterinary Parasitology, 2013Co-Authors: George Olah, Gabriela Vigo, Lizzie Ortiz, Lajos Rozsa, Donald J BrightsmithAbstract:Abstract Bot fly larvae (Philornis genus) are obligate subcutaneous blood-feeding parasites of Neotropical birds including psittacines. We analyze twelve years of data on scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) nestlings in natural and artificial nests in the lowland forests of southeastern Peru and report prevalence and intensity of Philornis parasitism. Bot fly prevalence was 28.9% while mean intensity was 5.0 larvae per infected chick. Prevalence in natural nests (11%, N = 90 nestlings) was lower than in wooden nest-boxes (39%, N = 57) and PVC boxes (39%, N = 109). We describe a new technique of removing Philornis larvae using a reverse syringe design snake bite extractor. We compare this new technique to two other methods for removing bots from Macaw chicks and find the new method the most suitable.
Adriana Bravo - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Ecology and Management of Nesting Blue-and-Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) in Mauritia Palm Swamps
Biodiversity & Conservation, 2006Co-Authors: Donald Brightsmith, Adriana BravoAbstract:This paper reports on the nesting ecology of blue-and-yellow Macaws ( Ara ararauna ) and the structure, conservation, and management of the Mauritia flexuosa palm swamps where they nest: clutch size averaged 2.6 and the number of chicks fledged per nesting attempt was 0.5. Macaws nested in tall dead palms in healthy palm swamps and in palms of all heights in open dieing palm stands. All nesting palms rose well above the surrounding vegetation presumably to discourage terrestrial predators. PVC nest boxes failed to attract nesting blue-and-yellow Macaws. A small section of palm swamp was managed to encourage Macaw nesting by cutting the tops off of M. flexuosa palms and clearing the understory vegetation. The palms remained standing from 4 to 7 years and were occupied by nesting Macaws at a rate of 24%. The data presented here suggest that cutting five palms a year in perpetuity would produce a stand of approximately 20 standing dead palms used by 6 or more pairs of Macaws annually. However, Macaw occupancy rates would depend on the density of Macaws and density of naturally occurring nest sites. This management scheme could be conducted on a 100-year rotation in an area of 1–4 ha or more depending on the palm density. Such a colony could be used to increase reproductive success of blue-and-yellow Macaw populations, create a valuable ecotourism resource, and concentrate Macaw nesting in protected areas.
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Ecology and Management of Nesting Blue-and-Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) in Mauritia Palm Swamps
Biodiversity and Conservation, 2006Co-Authors: Donald Brightsmith, Adriana BravoAbstract:This paper reports on the nesting ecology of blue-and-yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) and the structure, conservation, and management of the Mauritia flexuosa palm swamps where they nest: clutch size averaged 2.6 and the number of chicks fledged per nesting attempt was 0.5. Macaws nested in tall dead palms in healthy palm swamps and in palms of all heights in open dieing palm stands. All nesting palms rose well above the surrounding vegetation presumably to discourage terrestrial predators. PVC nest boxes failed to attract nesting blue-and-yellow Macaws. A small section of palm swamp was managed to encourage Macaw nesting by cutting the tops off of M. flexuosa palms and clearing the understory vegetation. The palms remained standing from 4 to 7 years and were occupied by nesting Macaws at a rate of 24%. The data presented here suggest that cutting five palms a year in perpetuity would produce a stand of approximately 20 standing dead palms used by 6 or more pairs of Macaws annually. However, Macaw occupancy rates would depend on the density of Macaws and density of naturally occurring nest sites. This management scheme could be conducted on a 100-year rotation in an area of 1–4 ha or more depending on the palm density. Such a colony could be used to increase reproductive success of blue-and-yellow Macaw populations, create a valuable ecotourism resource, and concentrate Macaw nesting in protected areas.
Katherine Renton - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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optimal diet strategy of a large bodied psittacine food resource abundance and nutritional content enable facultative dietary specialization by the military Macaw
Avian Research, 2019Co-Authors: Sylvia Margarita De La Parramartinez, Luis Guillermo Munozlacy, Alejandro Salinasmelgoza, Katherine RentonAbstract:Dietary specialization should arise when there is a relatively high abundance of a particular resource, where animals may select food items to obtain an optimal diet that maximizes energy intake. Large-bodied psittacines frequently exhibit a narrow dietary niche with specific habitat use, but few studies have determined whether psittacines select food resources, and how this influences habitat use. We established fruiting phenology transects to evaluate food resource availability for the large-bodied Military Macaw (Ara militaris) in semi-deciduous, deciduous, and pine-oak forest at two sites along the coast of Jalisco, during the dry season when Macaws are nesting. We also determined Military Macaw diet by observations of foraging Macaws along transect routes, and conducted bromatological analysis of the nutritional content of the most consumed resource. Military Macaws used six plant species as food items during the dry season, and had a narrow dietary niche (Levins’ B = 0.28), with 56% of foraging Macaws consuming the seeds of Hura polyandra. No food resources were recorded in pine-oak forest during the dry season, with food resources and foraging by Macaws concentrated in tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, where H. polyandra was the most abundant fruiting tree species. When considering the proportional availability of food resources, we determined a broad Hurlbert dietary niche breadth of H = 0.67, indicating that Military Macaws consumed food resources according to their availability. Furthermore, the seeds of H. polyandra were an important source of protein, carbohydrates, minerals and moisture, and the hard fruit-casing means that these seeds are exclusively available for Macaws. By concentrating their diet on the most abundant resources, Military Macaws may increase foraging efficiency in the dry season. The high nutrient content also means that concentrating the diet on seeds of H. polyandra may be an optimal foraging strategy for Military Macaws to meet their energy requirements during the breeding season.
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Optimal diet strategy of a large-bodied psittacine: food resource abundance and nutritional content enable facultative dietary specialization by the Military Macaw
Avian Research, 2019Co-Authors: Sylvia Margarita De La Parra-martínez, Luis Guillermo Muñoz-lacy, Alejandro Salinas-melgoza, Katherine RentonAbstract:Background Dietary specialization should arise when there is a relatively high abundance of a particular resource, where animals may select food items to obtain an optimal diet that maximizes energy intake. Large-bodied psittacines frequently exhibit a narrow dietary niche with specific habitat use, but few studies have determined whether psittacines select food resources, and how this influences habitat use. Methods We established fruiting phenology transects to evaluate food resource availability for the large-bodied Military Macaw ( Ara militaris ) in semi-deciduous, deciduous, and pine-oak forest at two sites along the coast of Jalisco, during the dry season when Macaws are nesting. We also determined Military Macaw diet by observations of foraging Macaws along transect routes, and conducted bromatological analysis of the nutritional content of the most consumed resource. Results Military Macaws used six plant species as food items during the dry season, and had a narrow dietary niche (Levins’ B = 0.28), with 56% of foraging Macaws consuming the seeds of Hura polyandra . No food resources were recorded in pine-oak forest during the dry season, with food resources and foraging by Macaws concentrated in tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, where H. polyandra was the most abundant fruiting tree species. When considering the proportional availability of food resources, we determined a broad Hurlbert dietary niche breadth of H = 0.67, indicating that Military Macaws consumed food resources according to their availability. Furthermore, the seeds of H. polyandra were an important source of protein, carbohydrates, minerals and moisture, and the hard fruit-casing means that these seeds are exclusively available for Macaws. Conclusions By concentrating their diet on the most abundant resources, Military Macaws may increase foraging efficiency in the dry season. The high nutrient content also means that concentrating the diet on seeds of H. polyandra may be an optimal foraging strategy for Military Macaws to meet their energy requirements during the breeding season.
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tree cavity availability and selection by a large bodied secondary cavity nester the military Macaw
Journal of Ornithology, 2015Co-Authors: Sylvia Margarita De La Parramartinez, Katherine Renton, Alejandro Salinasmelgoza, Luis Guillermo MunozlacyAbstract:Large-bodied secondary cavity-nesters are constrained to use cavities of sufficient size to permit access, while also selecting characteristics to reduce predation. However, no information exists on nest-site availability for large-bodied secondary cavity-nesters in tropical forests. We located 12 tree-cavity nests of the threatened Military Macaw (Ara militaris) in tropical dry semi-deciduous forest in Jalisco, Mexico. For each nest, we determined cavity characteristics, and compared the structure of nest-trees with nearest-neighbor trees. We also established four 100 × 50 m transects in each of deciduous, semi-deciduous, and oak forest to determine tree-cavity availability over 6 ha. Military Macaw nest-sites occurred most frequently in cavities of live Enterolobium cyclocarpum trees. Nest-trees had significantly larger diameter and ramification height than the four nearest-neighbor trees, indicating that Macaws selected tall emergent trees as nest-sites. Cavities used as nest-sites by Military Macaws were also in significantly larger trees, at a greater height, and had larger entrance diameter and depth than all accessible cavities. Height above the ground was the main criteria predicting nest-cavity selection, possibly to reduce predation risk. There was also a negative correlation of nest-cavity height with depth, suggesting a trade-off in which Military Macaws may select a nest-cavity high above the ground regardless of depth, but when using lower cavities these tend to be deeper. We found a low density of cavities with characteristics suitable for nesting, and these were concentrated in semi-deciduous forest. Our results demonstrate that the Military Macaw exhibits species-specific selection of nest-cavities, with a low density of cavities suitable for large-bodied secondary cavity-nesters in tropical forests.
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Cavity use and reproductive success of nesting Macaws in lowland forest of southeast Peru
Journal of Field Ornithology, 2009Co-Authors: Katherine Renton, Donald J BrightsmithAbstract:Competition for nest sites by sympatric species can lead to resource partitioning among species. We examined the partitioning of cavity resources by Red-and-green Macaws (Ara chloropterus), Blue-and-yellow Macaws (A. ararauna), and Scarlet Macaws (A. macad) in the lowland forest of southeast Peru. Red-and-green Macaws nested primarily in cavities in emergent Dipteryx trees, and Blue-and-yellow Macaws nested predominantly in palm snags. Scarlet Macaws had the broadest nesting niche, and their use of cavities overlapped that of the other two species. These differences in cavity use may be related to differences in size, with Red-and-green Macaws the largest of the three species (90 cm long, 1050-1320 g), followed by Scarlet Macaws (85 cm long, 1060-1123 g) and Blue-and-yellow Macaws (70 cm long, 1086 g). We did not observe interspecific conflicts between Blue-and-yellow Macaws and the other two species. However, Scarlet and Red-and-green Macaws frequently compete for cavities, perhaps contributing to the use of a wider range of cavity resources by the smaller, less competitive Scarlet Macaws. For the three Macaw species combined, 40 of 84 nests (48%) were successful, fledging either one or two young (mean = 1.4 ? 0.43). The overall reproductive output (including failed nests) was 0.60 ? 0.68 fledglings per nesting pair, with no difference between Macaw species (P > 0.18). A lack of alternative nest substrates for large Macaws may drive resource partitioning by sympatric species, with specialization on either emergent trees or palm snags, whereas less competitive species like Scarlet Macaws need to be flexible and use a variety of nest sites. RESUMEN. Uso de cavidades y ?xito reproductivo de las guacamayas en la selva tropical h?meda del sureste de Per? La competencia por sitios de anidaci?n entre especies simpatricas favorece la repartici?n de recursos. Evaluamos la repartici?n del recurso de cavidades entre la guacamaya roja (Ara chloropterus), guacamaya azul y amarilla (A. araraund), y guacamaya escarlata (A. macao) en la selva tropical h?meda del sureste de Per?. La guacamaya roja anid? principalmente en cavidades en ?rboles emergentes de Dipteryx, y la guacamaya azul y amarilla anid? en palmeras muertas. La guacamaya escarlata present? el nicho de anidaci?n m?s amplio, s?brelapando su uso de cavidades con las otras dos especies. Estas diferencias en uso de cavidades podr?an estar relacionadas con diferencias en tama?o corporal, la guacamaya roja es la especie mas grande (90 cm largo, 1050-1320 g), seguido por la guacamaya escarlata (85 cm largo, 1060-1123 g) y la guacamaya azul y amarillo (70 cm largo, 1086 g). No observamos conflictos interespecificos de la guacamaya azul y amarilla con las otras dos especies. Sin embargo, las guacamayas roja y escarlata competieron frecuentemente por las cavidades, que contribuir?a al rango mas amplio de cavidades usadas por la mas peque?a, menor competitivo, guacamaya escarlata. Para las tres especies, 40 de 84 nidos (48%) fueron exitosos, con uno o dos volantones (promedio = 1.4 ? 0.43). La productividad reproductiva (incluyendo nidos fracasados) fue de 0.60 ? 0.68 volantones por pareja, que no vari? entre las especies (P > 0.18). Una falta de sustratos alternos para anidaci?n por las guacamayas podr?a impulsar la repartici?n de recursos entre las especies simpatricas, con especializaci?n sobre ?rboles emergentes o palmeras muertas, mientras la menor competidora guacamaya escarlata necesita ser flexible, utilizando una variedad de sitios de anidaci?n.
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Diet of Adult and Nestling Scarlet Macaws in Southwest Belize, Central America
Biotropica, 2006Co-Authors: Katherine RentonAbstract:Scarlet Macaw diet was determined during the breeding season of February–June 1998. Macaws were primarily granivorous, exhibiting a narrow diet during the dry season, with low variety of food items in adult and nestling diets. Seeds of Cnidoscolus spp. and Schizolobium parahybum, tree species characteristic of floodplain forest, were predominant in nestling diets, and may provide protein-rich food resources. River floodplains provided important nest sites and food resources for Scarlet Macaws during the breeding season.
Kari L. Schmidt - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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genetic analysis reveals strong phylogeographical divergences within the scarlet Macaw ara macao
Ibis, 2020Co-Authors: Kari L. Schmidt, Matthew L Aardema, George AmatoAbstract:Scarlet Macaws Ara macao have the largest geographical distribution of any Neotropical psittacine, occupying a variety of lowland forest habitats from Mexico to Brazil. Two subspecies, Ara macao macao and Ara macao cyanoptera, are currently recognized based on wing chord length and plumage coloration, with formal descriptions suggesting genetic introgression in southern Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica. The present study aimed to investigate the extent of genetic diversification within A. macao by analysing mitochondrial sequence data from contemporary and historical samples. Phylogenetic reconstruction and population aggregation analysis confirmed two distinct phylogeographical groups, with a high degree of intraspecific genetic structure and no evidence of a putative hybrid zone. Whole mitochondrial genome sequencing further confirmed substantial divergence (~ 1.8%) between the cyanoptera and macao lineages. These results demonstrate a separation of A. macao into two distinct evolutionary entities and highlight a non‐uniform distribution of intraspecific diversity, suggesting current conservation designations may warrant re‐evaluation.
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Archaeogenomic evidence from the southwestern US points to a pre-Hispanic scarlet Macaw breeding colony.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2018Co-Authors: Richard George, Stephen Plog, Adam S. Watson, Kari L. Schmidt, Brendan J. Culleton, Thomas K. Harper, Patricia A. Gilman, Steven A. Leblanc, George Amato, Peter M. WhiteleyAbstract:Hundreds of scarlet Macaw (Ara macao cyanoptera) skeletons have been recovered from archaeological contexts in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico (SW/NW). The location of these skeletons, >1,000 km outside their Neotropical endemic range, has suggested a far-reaching pre-Hispanic acquisition network. Clear evidence for scarlet Macaw breeding within this network is only known from the settlement of Paquime in NW dating between 1250 and 1450 CE. Although some scholars have speculated on the probable existence of earlier breeding centers in the SW/NW region, there has been no supporting evidence. In this study, we performed an ancient DNA analysis of scarlet Macaws recovered from archaeological sites in Chaco Canyon and the contemporaneous Mimbres area of New Mexico. All samples were directly radiocarbon dated between 900 and 1200 CE. We reconstructed complete or near-complete mitochondrial genome sequences of 14 scarlet Macaws from five different sites. We observed remarkably low genetic diversity in this sample, consistent with breeding of a small founder population translocated outside their natural range. Phylogeographic comparisons of our ancient DNA mitogenomes with mitochondrial sequences from Macaws collected during the last 200 years from their endemic Neotropical range identified genetic affinity between the ancient Macaws and a single rare haplogroup (Haplo6) observed only among wild Macaws in Mexico and northern Guatemala. Our results suggest that people at an undiscovered pre-Hispanic settlement dating between 900 and 1200 CE managed a Macaw breeding colony outside their endemic range and distributed these symbolically important birds through the SW.
Donald Brightsmith - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Ecology and Management of Nesting Blue-and-Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) in Mauritia Palm Swamps
Biodiversity & Conservation, 2006Co-Authors: Donald Brightsmith, Adriana BravoAbstract:This paper reports on the nesting ecology of blue-and-yellow Macaws ( Ara ararauna ) and the structure, conservation, and management of the Mauritia flexuosa palm swamps where they nest: clutch size averaged 2.6 and the number of chicks fledged per nesting attempt was 0.5. Macaws nested in tall dead palms in healthy palm swamps and in palms of all heights in open dieing palm stands. All nesting palms rose well above the surrounding vegetation presumably to discourage terrestrial predators. PVC nest boxes failed to attract nesting blue-and-yellow Macaws. A small section of palm swamp was managed to encourage Macaw nesting by cutting the tops off of M. flexuosa palms and clearing the understory vegetation. The palms remained standing from 4 to 7 years and were occupied by nesting Macaws at a rate of 24%. The data presented here suggest that cutting five palms a year in perpetuity would produce a stand of approximately 20 standing dead palms used by 6 or more pairs of Macaws annually. However, Macaw occupancy rates would depend on the density of Macaws and density of naturally occurring nest sites. This management scheme could be conducted on a 100-year rotation in an area of 1–4 ha or more depending on the palm density. Such a colony could be used to increase reproductive success of blue-and-yellow Macaw populations, create a valuable ecotourism resource, and concentrate Macaw nesting in protected areas.
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Ecology and Management of Nesting Blue-and-Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) in Mauritia Palm Swamps
Biodiversity and Conservation, 2006Co-Authors: Donald Brightsmith, Adriana BravoAbstract:This paper reports on the nesting ecology of blue-and-yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) and the structure, conservation, and management of the Mauritia flexuosa palm swamps where they nest: clutch size averaged 2.6 and the number of chicks fledged per nesting attempt was 0.5. Macaws nested in tall dead palms in healthy palm swamps and in palms of all heights in open dieing palm stands. All nesting palms rose well above the surrounding vegetation presumably to discourage terrestrial predators. PVC nest boxes failed to attract nesting blue-and-yellow Macaws. A small section of palm swamp was managed to encourage Macaw nesting by cutting the tops off of M. flexuosa palms and clearing the understory vegetation. The palms remained standing from 4 to 7 years and were occupied by nesting Macaws at a rate of 24%. The data presented here suggest that cutting five palms a year in perpetuity would produce a stand of approximately 20 standing dead palms used by 6 or more pairs of Macaws annually. However, Macaw occupancy rates would depend on the density of Macaws and density of naturally occurring nest sites. This management scheme could be conducted on a 100-year rotation in an area of 1–4 ha or more depending on the palm density. Such a colony could be used to increase reproductive success of blue-and-yellow Macaw populations, create a valuable ecotourism resource, and concentrate Macaw nesting in protected areas.
