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Praneeth Netrapalli - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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the step decay schedule a near optimal geometrically decaying learning rate procedure for least squares
arXiv: Learning, 2019Co-Authors: Sham M Kakade, Rahul Kidambi, Praneeth NetrapalliAbstract:Minimax optimal convergence rates for classes of stochastic convex optimization problems are well characterized, where the majority of results utilize iterate averaged stochastic gradient descent (SGD) with polynomially decaying step sizes. In contrast, SGD's final iterate behavior has received much less attention despite their widespread use in practice. Motivated by this observation, this work provides a detailed study of the following question: what rate is achievable using the final iterate of SGD for the streaming least squares regression problem with and without strong convexity? First, this work shows that even if the time horizon T (i.e. the Number of iterations SGD is run for) is known in advance, SGD's final iterate behavior with any polynomially decaying learning rate scheme is highly sub-optimal compared to the minimax rate (by a condition Number Factor in the strongly convex case and a Factor of $\sqrt{T}$ in the non-strongly convex case). In contrast, this paper shows that Step Decay schedules, which cut the learning rate by a constant Factor every constant Number of epochs (i.e., the learning rate decays geometrically) offers significant improvements over any polynomially decaying step sizes. In particular, the final iterate behavior with a step decay schedule is off the minimax rate by only $log$ Factors (in the condition Number for strongly convex case, and in T for the non-strongly convex case). Finally, in stark contrast to the known horizon case, this paper shows that the anytime (i.e. the limiting) behavior of SGD's final iterate is poor (in that it queries iterates with highly sub-optimal function value infinitely often, i.e. in a limsup sense) irrespective of the stepsizes employed. These results demonstrate the subtlety in establishing optimal learning rate schemes (for the final iterate) for stochastic gradient procedures in fixed time horizon settings.
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the step decay schedule a near optimal geometrically decaying learning rate procedure for least squares
Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019Co-Authors: Sham M Kakade, Rahul Kidambi, Praneeth NetrapalliAbstract:Minimax optimal convergence rates for numerous classes of stochastic convex optimization problems are well characterized, where the majority of results utilize iterate averaged stochastic gradient descent (SGD) with polynomially decaying step sizes. In contrast, the behavior of SGD’s final iterate has received much less attention despite the widespread use in practice. Motivated by this observation, this work provides a detailed study of the following question: what rate is achievable using the final iterate of SGD for the streaming least squares regression problem with and without strong convexity? First, this work shows that even if the time horizon T (i.e. the Number of iterations that SGD is run for) is known in advance, the behavior of SGD’s final iterate with any polynomially decaying learning rate scheme is highly sub-optimal compared to the statistical minimax rate (by a condition Number Factor in the strongly convex case and a Factor of $\sqrt{T}$ in the non-strongly convex case). In contrast, this paper shows that Step Decay schedules, which cut the learning rate by a constant Factor every constant Number of epochs (i.e., the learning rate decays geometrically) offer significant improvements over any polynomially decaying step size schedule. In particular, the behavior of the final iterate with step decay schedules is off from the statistical minimax rate by only log Factors (in the condition Number for the strongly convex case, and in T in the non-strongly convex case). Finally, in stark contrast to the known horizon case, this paper shows that the anytime (i.e. the limiting) behavior of SGD’s final iterate is poor (in that it queries iterates with highly sub-optimal function value infinitely often, i.e. in a limsup sense) irrespective of the step size scheme employed. These results demonstrate the subtlety in establishing optimal learning rate schedules (for the final iterate) for stochastic gradient procedures in fixed time horizon settings.
Paulo Cesar Pires Rosa - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Estudo da separação cromatografica dos enantiomeros do omeprazol em fase estacionaria quiral Kromasil CHI-TBB (0,0´ - BIS[4-TERC-BUTILBENZOIL] -N,N´-DIALIL-L-TARTADIAMIDA)
2017Co-Authors: Paulo Cesar Pires RosaAbstract:Resumo: O fármaco racêmico omeprazol tem sido utilizado no tratamento de doenças relacionadas à acidez gástrica e apresenta atividades diferentes entre os enantiômeros. O enantiômero S, conhecido como esomeprazol, tem maior atividade quanto à inibição da secreção gástrica e tem sido obtido a partir de uma síntese assimétrica. Entretanto, a síntese assimétrica é um processo de alto custo, que exige muitas etapas de desenvolvimento em que apenas um dos enantiômeros pode ser obtido. A separação cromatográfica com fase estacionária quiral (FEQ) tem sido utilizada como uma opção para obtenção de ambos os enantiômeros com elevada pureza ótica. Algumas FEQ têm sido utilizadas na separação do ?mais ou menos?tomeprazol, entretanto a FEQ Kromasil CID-TBB ainda não foi utilizada para essa separação. Neste trabalho, foi realizado o desenvolvimento da separação do omeprazol racêmico utilizando a FEQ Kromasil CID-TBB, e foram determinados parâmetros fundamentais para a separação em escala preparativa. A coluna foi caracterizada através da determinação das porosidades do sistema e avaliação da queda de pressão, apresentado porosidades indicativas de um processo uniforme de enchimento da coluna e baixa queda de pressão. Os parâmetros de separação cromatográfica, determinados a diferentes temperaturas e vazões apresentaram número de pratos, fator de separação e resolução superiores a 1200, 1,24 e 1,74 para a condição extrema de vazão 4,0 rnL/min e temperatura de 40°C. Em condições de concentrações elevadas foi obtido fator de separação superior a 1,27. O coeficiente de dispersão axial apresentou pouca variação entre os enantiômeros, entretanto a transferência de massa global foi considerada relativamente rápida com valores de 21,03 e 17,83 ?min POT. ?l? para S e R-omeprazol, respectivamente. A isoterma de adsorção competitiva apresentou comportamento linear e elevada quantidade de enantiômero adsorvido na FEQ. A entalpia de adsorção determinada mostrou a fenômenos entálpicos regem a separação dos enantiômeros na FEQ avaliada.O estudo de sobrecarga da coluna realizado em concentrações elevadas mostrou a possibilidade da separação do omeprazol racêmico. Os resultados obtidos mostram que a FEQ Kromasil CID-TBB é capaz de separar os enantiômeros do omeprazol em condições de escala preparativa sendo uma alternativa para a produção do S-omprazolAbstract: The racemic mixture of the omeprazole has been used in the treatment of illnesses related to the gastric acidity and presents different activities between the enantiomers. Enantiomer S, known as esomeprazole, has greater activity how much to the inhibition of the gastric secretion and has been gotten from an asymmetric synthesis. However, the asymmetric synthesis is a process of high cost, that demands many stages of development where only one of the enantiomers can be gotten. The chromatographic separation with quiral stationary phase (CSP) has been used as an option for attainment of both the enantiomers with raised pureness optics. Some CSP have been used in the separation of omeprazole, however the FEQ Kromasil CHI-TBB was still not used for this separation. In this work, the development of the separation of omeprazole was carried through racemic mixture using the CSPKromasil CHI-TBB, and had been determined basic parameters for the separation in preparative scale. The column was characterized through the determination of the porosities of the system and evaluation of the fall of pressure, presented indicative porosities of a process wadding uniform of the column and low pressure fall. The parameters of chromatographic separation, determined the different temperatures and outflows had presented plate Number, Factor of separation and resolution values larger tham 1200, 1,24 and 1,74 for the extreme condition of 4,0 outflow mL/min and temperature 40°C. In conditions of high concentrations has obtained the separation Factor value larger tham of 1,27. The coefficient ofaxial dispersion presented little variation between the enantiômeros, however the transference of global mass was considered relatively fast with 17,83 values of 21,03 and min-l for S and R-omeprazole, respectively. The isotherm of competitive adsortion presented linear behavior and high amount of enantiomer adsorved in the CSP. The enthalpy of the adsortion determinated showed the entalpics phenomena conducts the separation of the enantiômeros in the FEQ studied. The study of overload of the column carried through in high concentrations showed the possibility of the separation of omeprazole racemic. The gotten results show that the FEQ Kromasil CHI-TBB is capable to separate the enantiomers of omeprazol in conditions of preparative scale being an alternative for the production of the S-omprazol
Paulo César Pires - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Estudo da separação cromatografica dos enantiomeros do omeprazol em fase estacionaria quiral Kromasil CHI-TBB (0,0' - BIS[4-TERC-BUTILBENZOIL] -N,N'-DIALIL-L-TARTADIAMIDA)
[s.n.], 2018Co-Authors: Paulo César PiresAbstract:Orientador: Cesar Costapinto SantanaDissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia QuimicaResumo: O fármaco racêmico omeprazol tem sido utilizado no tratamento de doenças relacionadas à acidez gástrica e apresenta atividades diferentes entre os enantiômeros. O enantiômero S, conhecido como esomeprazol, tem maior atividade quanto à inibição da secreção gástrica e tem sido obtido a partir de uma síntese assimétrica. Entretanto, a síntese assimétrica é um processo de alto custo, que exige muitas etapas de desenvolvimento em que apenas um dos enantiômeros pode ser obtido. A separação cromatográfica com fase estacionária quiral (FEQ) tem sido utilizada como uma opção para obtenção de ambos os enantiômeros com elevada pureza ótica. Algumas FEQ têm sido utilizadas na separação do ?mais ou menos?tomeprazol, entretanto a FEQ Kromasil CID-TBB ainda não foi utilizada para essa separação. Neste trabalho, foi realizado o desenvolvimento da separação do omeprazol racêmico utilizando a FEQ Kromasil CID-TBB, e foram determinados parâmetros fundamentais para a separação em escala preparativa. A coluna foi caracterizada através da determinação das porosidades do sistema e avaliação da queda de pressão, apresentado porosidades indicativas de um processo uniforme de enchimento da coluna e baixa queda de pressão. Os parâmetros de separação cromatográfica, determinados a diferentes temperaturas e vazões apresentaram número de pratos, fator de separação e resolução superiores a 1200, 1,24 e 1,74 para a condição extrema de vazão 4,0 rnL/min e temperatura de 40°C. Em condições de concentrações elevadas foi obtido fator de separação superior a 1,27. O coeficiente de dispersão axial apresentou pouca variação entre os enantiômeros, entretanto a transferência de massa global foi considerada relativamente rápida com valores de 21,03 e 17,83 ?min POT. ?l? para S e R-omeprazol, respectivamente. A isoterma de adsorção competitiva apresentou comportamento linear e elevada quantidade de enantiômero adsorvido na FEQ. A entalpia de adsorção determinada mostrou a fenômenos entálpicos regem a separação dos enantiômeros na FEQ avaliada.O estudo de sobrecarga da coluna realizado em concentrações elevadas mostrou a possibilidade da separação do omeprazol racêmico. Os resultados obtidos mostram que a FEQ Kromasil CID-TBB é capaz de separar os enantiômeros do omeprazol em condições de escala preparativa sendo uma alternativa para a produção do S-omprazolAbstract: The racemic mixture of the omeprazole has been used in the treatment of illnesses related to the gastric acidity and presents different activities between the enantiomers. Enantiomer S, known as esomeprazole, has greater activity how much to the inhibition of the gastric secretion and has been gotten from an asymmetric synthesis. However, the asymmetric synthesis is a process of high cost, that demands many stages of development where only one of the enantiomers can be gotten. The chromatographic separation with quiral stationary phase (CSP) has been used as an option for attainment of both the enantiomers with raised pureness optics. Some CSP have been used in the separation of omeprazole, however the FEQ Kromasil CHI-TBB was still not used for this separation. In this work, the development of the separation of omeprazole was carried through racemic mixture using the CSPKromasil CHI-TBB, and had been determined basic parameters for the separation in preparative scale. The column was characterized through the determination of the porosities of the system and evaluation of the fall of pressure, presented indicative porosities of a process wadding uniform of the column and low pressure fall. The parameters of chromatographic separation, determined the different temperatures and outflows had presented plate Number, Factor of separation and resolution values larger tham 1200, 1,24 and 1,74 for the extreme condition of 4,0 outflow mL/min and temperature 40°C. In conditions of high concentrations has obtained the separation Factor value larger tham of 1,27. The coefficient ofaxial dispersion presented little variation between the enantiômeros, however the transference of global mass was considered relatively fast with 17,83 values of 21,03 and min-l for S and R-omeprazole, respectively. The isotherm of competitive adsortion presented linear behavior and high amount of enantiomer adsorved in the CSP. The enthalpy of the adsortion determinated showed the entalpics phenomena conducts the separation of the enantiômeros in the FEQ studied. The study of overload of the column carried through in high concentrations showed the possibility of the separation of omeprazole racemic. The gotten results show that the FEQ Kromasil CHI-TBB is capable to separate the enantiomers of omeprazol in conditions of preparative scale being an alternative for the production of the S-omprazoleMestradoDesenvolvimento de Processos BiotecnologicosMestre em Engenharia Químic
Sham M Kakade - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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the step decay schedule a near optimal geometrically decaying learning rate procedure for least squares
arXiv: Learning, 2019Co-Authors: Sham M Kakade, Rahul Kidambi, Praneeth NetrapalliAbstract:Minimax optimal convergence rates for classes of stochastic convex optimization problems are well characterized, where the majority of results utilize iterate averaged stochastic gradient descent (SGD) with polynomially decaying step sizes. In contrast, SGD's final iterate behavior has received much less attention despite their widespread use in practice. Motivated by this observation, this work provides a detailed study of the following question: what rate is achievable using the final iterate of SGD for the streaming least squares regression problem with and without strong convexity? First, this work shows that even if the time horizon T (i.e. the Number of iterations SGD is run for) is known in advance, SGD's final iterate behavior with any polynomially decaying learning rate scheme is highly sub-optimal compared to the minimax rate (by a condition Number Factor in the strongly convex case and a Factor of $\sqrt{T}$ in the non-strongly convex case). In contrast, this paper shows that Step Decay schedules, which cut the learning rate by a constant Factor every constant Number of epochs (i.e., the learning rate decays geometrically) offers significant improvements over any polynomially decaying step sizes. In particular, the final iterate behavior with a step decay schedule is off the minimax rate by only $log$ Factors (in the condition Number for strongly convex case, and in T for the non-strongly convex case). Finally, in stark contrast to the known horizon case, this paper shows that the anytime (i.e. the limiting) behavior of SGD's final iterate is poor (in that it queries iterates with highly sub-optimal function value infinitely often, i.e. in a limsup sense) irrespective of the stepsizes employed. These results demonstrate the subtlety in establishing optimal learning rate schemes (for the final iterate) for stochastic gradient procedures in fixed time horizon settings.
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the step decay schedule a near optimal geometrically decaying learning rate procedure for least squares
Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019Co-Authors: Sham M Kakade, Rahul Kidambi, Praneeth NetrapalliAbstract:Minimax optimal convergence rates for numerous classes of stochastic convex optimization problems are well characterized, where the majority of results utilize iterate averaged stochastic gradient descent (SGD) with polynomially decaying step sizes. In contrast, the behavior of SGD’s final iterate has received much less attention despite the widespread use in practice. Motivated by this observation, this work provides a detailed study of the following question: what rate is achievable using the final iterate of SGD for the streaming least squares regression problem with and without strong convexity? First, this work shows that even if the time horizon T (i.e. the Number of iterations that SGD is run for) is known in advance, the behavior of SGD’s final iterate with any polynomially decaying learning rate scheme is highly sub-optimal compared to the statistical minimax rate (by a condition Number Factor in the strongly convex case and a Factor of $\sqrt{T}$ in the non-strongly convex case). In contrast, this paper shows that Step Decay schedules, which cut the learning rate by a constant Factor every constant Number of epochs (i.e., the learning rate decays geometrically) offer significant improvements over any polynomially decaying step size schedule. In particular, the behavior of the final iterate with step decay schedules is off from the statistical minimax rate by only log Factors (in the condition Number for the strongly convex case, and in T in the non-strongly convex case). Finally, in stark contrast to the known horizon case, this paper shows that the anytime (i.e. the limiting) behavior of SGD’s final iterate is poor (in that it queries iterates with highly sub-optimal function value infinitely often, i.e. in a limsup sense) irrespective of the step size scheme employed. These results demonstrate the subtlety in establishing optimal learning rate schedules (for the final iterate) for stochastic gradient procedures in fixed time horizon settings.
Veenstra J. - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Think big, start small : restricted room for manoeuvre by practitioners in socio-spatial planning of peripheral regions in Third World Countries
S.n., 2000Co-Authors: Ham Van Den, A., Veenstra J.Abstract:<p>In a first part of this study van den Ham reacts to the increased free-market thinking and makes in chapter 1 a plea for continued efforts in active, public socio-spatial development policies in order to contribute to sustainable poverty alleviation in remote areas. This policy should aim at lifting restrictions, both material and socio-cultural, of people to realise their human capabilities to qualitatively and sustainably change the conditions of life and livelihood. It is argued why, from a development practitioner's perspective, it is important to understand the dynamics in both development thinking and doing. A research construct is introduced to explore the framework within which development paradigms, policies and practices at normative ( <em>"what for"</em> and " <em>for whom?"</em> ), strategic ( <em>"how</em> ") and operational ( <em>"what, where, when, by and with whom?"</em> ) level change over time. This change is assumed to be influenced by key-development practitioner's 'inner-guiding' individual beliefs and values, acquired academic insights and practical, learning-by-doing experiences. In practice the proposed policies seem to be very much constrained or stimulated by the development practitioner's appreciated, influenceable and controllable environment which are subject to changing power relations between the state, the corporate sector and civil society.</p><p>In chapter 2 Veenstra elaborates the above research framework by highlighting the various components on the three axes depicting (1) inward-looking personal perspectives, focusing on habitual life-attitudes and roles of both indigenous and expatriate development practitioners (2) outward-looking, professional knowledge bases expanding in substantive, procedural as well as politico-institutional sense and (3) problem and action orientations as tried-out in time at various levels.</p><p>In chapter 3 van den Ham reviews at a glance the origins of international development co-operation and the elements that in practice impact upon the outcome of foreign-supported, expatriate-staffed development projects; they relate to identification, organisational setting, the role of expatriate practitioners, co-operation with local counterparts, the time dimension, the role models in transfer of knowledge and "voice, loyal and exit" strategies of the practitioners.</p><p>In the second part of the book seven case studies from Africa and Asia, all within the framework of international development assistance, are presented and related to the framework that has been introduced in the previous three chapters. In chapter 4 Veenstra explores his sequential experiences and struggles with emic and etic aspects in the evolving design of development programmes and practices in five projects in Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Yemen, Indonesia and Cameroon with special reference to area development planning and natural resource management. Both in sub-sections 4.6 and 6.3 Veenstra sums up his conclusions from outer and inner learning rounds in socio-spatial planning practices. In reaching after 'sustainable' livelihoods, -particularly in agrarian societies under patrimonial resource control in Sierra Leone, West Africa, of the 1960s-, strategic and operational incommensurabilities, with hindsight, cropped up as related to large-scale 'hard' infrastructure and agro-technical innovations. After actuality had completed its developmental course, shortcomings were, later on, laid open inside and between knowledge bases used, of corresponding policy instruments (not) employed, of statutory powers (not) granted and skilled personnel, budgets plus equipment (not) available. Above all, incongruity made itself manifest among stakeholders' normative outlooks holding sway at various territorial levels for prioritising their own resource claims. So it happened that in spite of 'common-good and great cause' intentions, 'kleptocratic' life styles both of rural and urban élites in a 'soft-state' setting were to be, distrustfully, endured.</p><p>In the case of socialist single-party Tanzania of the 1970s 'integrated' rural development pointed toward self-reliance, poverty alleviation and fair distribution of social and physical infrastructure. These laudable aims were thwarted, however, by a over-burdened state-apparatus and the rural populace, of necessity, exiting both into 'black-market' sales of its produce and clientship-like distribution channels for local provision of its basic services,- without revenues for the state coffers. So, both the Tanzanian bureaucracy and its open-handed foreign-aid advisors made themselves not responsive and trust-worthy, - in terms of the 'good local governance' fashion of the 1990s. Under these adversary working conditions expatriate area planners were willy-nilly forced to self containment, - for instance, in our 'remote' case of the neglected Shinyanga Region. Here, a prudent step-by-step integration both in planning and eventual implementation was intended 'from overseas' through initially restricting sectoral, time/space, problem and resource development perspectives to prioritised, low-level and small-scale, concentrated area project packages. So, 'for the time being', long-haul normative policy making, including its medium-term strategic issues, were put aside; socio-spatial arithmetics were to prevail through index-Number, Factor-, and flow-analysis methods; thus entrapped, both expatriate and indigenous planning officers felt their 'rationalising' efforts being frustrated by short-sighted detachment in public choice situations - like ostriches bury sometimes their heads in the sand.</p><p>In entering the 1980s, this neutral technocratic habitus was, -depending on politico-institutional contexts-, re-shaped towards those of mediatory brokers and advocates on behalf of beneficiary target groups. In the Rada'-case of North Yemen, 1981/82, phased social differentiation and changing leadership-styles in the long run were accounted for, but immediately shifting gears from operational towards strategic models of resource management emerged as leading theme. Here, in promoting still sustainable livelihoods, foreign development practitioners were to manoeuvre between the 'devil and the deep blue sea' of conflicting policy sets:</p><ul><li>on the one hand, in response to self-interests of national government headquarters and of private enterprise including 'progressive farmers', in favour of politico-institutional stability and free-market economic growth guided 'from above'; and</li><li>on the other hand, in response to local community interests of deprived peasants and herdsmen in favour of equalisation, citizen participation and resource mobilisation 'from below', in combination with local value patterns and natural resources to be left in a well balanced order.</li></ul><p>After a decade of Rada'-development efforts, i.e. 1975-85, it was concluded that in spite (or because) of selectively applied, concentrated area project packages local village life remained principally unchanged; that at a higher level of district government implementation capacity improved through ad hoc foreign assistance; but that at the higher sub-national level of the province strategic planning and governance did not find their co-ordinating niche, neither divergent statesman-like leadership. Therefore, the two case-studies of Aceh in Indonesia, 1977-1986, and of the Tikar water catchment basin around 1990 in Cameroon, West Africa, refrained initially from formulating a e state, corporate sector and civil society was rather modest.</p><p>In sub-sections 6.1 and 6.2 van den Ham concludes that the views of the key-players in the development projects can very much be traced to their previous experiences. The extent to which their views can be 'translated' into new approaches towards local area development is only to a small extent influenced by the 'power' of either the normative/inward-looking or the academic/outward-looking perspective of the concerned development practitioners. Effectuating the aspired 'real' participatory development, -implying redistribution of resources and (decision-making) power-, within the context of 'foreign' projects would for example run up against the resistance of vested interests; such an approach, whatever its desirability, can therefore not be pursued. Political room for manoeuvre turns out to be the determining Factor in the normative domain. However, there is usually (limited) room at the strategic and operational levels. There it appears that the design and implementation of the advocated strategies and practices is guided by the (normative) disposition of the key players towards the essence of development and their perception of the (strategic) role of the various actors in the development process. These are fed by a commensurate cognitive outlook on reality as well as their practical experiences. Again, substantive 'objective' knowledge bases appear to play only a rather limited role in the actual formulation of programmes and practices. Hence, the foreign-funded socio-spatial development projects 'ploughed through' with limited, isolated and above all 'accidental' (because very much depending on the individual practitioner involved and very specific local conditions capacitating or constraining the potential actors) experiments.</p><p>With a view towards the future van den Ham outlines in sub-section 6.4 a changing context for local development practitioners. As in sub-section 6.5 van den Ham explains, this changing context poses new challenges to, and requires new roles to be played by (teams of) future development practitioners. It is suggested that specific capabilities are required to more structurally and successfully address the socio-spatial inequalities from the local level upwards. Development practitioners should not only be technically trained in a Number of skills that have traditionally been linked to the function of regional development officer. They rather should start with acquiring a thorough understanding of the dynamic way normative, strategic and operational dispositions are achieved in practice and can be influenced in an effective and legitimate way. Empathy towards other stakeholder's dispositions and potential contributions as actors in their own right, as well as self-critically reflecting on their own positioning, should development practitioners make more conscious of the link between personal or inner change, and social or outer change. This (un-)conscious reflection on implementation will contribute again to reshaping the perspectives on intended societal advancement and results in new approaches to deal with the outstanding issues.</p><p>However, development practitioners should be aware that neither their own understanding of reality and their way to deal with it, nor the other stakeholder's positioning and his/her use of the results are fixed or value-neutral. These are all very much influenced by personal and professional life history, inner normative guidelines of individual beliefs as well as values, economic interests, gender, class - all very much time-, space- and context-bound possibilities and constraints. Therefore, it is for development practitioners highly important that they are capable of opening up space for public dialogue on the directions of development. They should be able to analyse the diverse options of the participants and identify the potential conflict of interest that will occur among the various stakeholders, before certain positions getting accepted as "appreciated' and translating them in (normatively) disputable strategies, projects and programmes.</p><p>In addition to the 'traditional' technical skills in economics, regional science, physical geography, public administration, data management etc., communicative and analytical skills as well as abilities in the field of conflict prevention and resolution are needed to (help) translating the normative dispositions in strategic and operational terms. Next to engaging actor groups in shaping development processes, local development practitioners should also be able to facilitate reconciliation of the claims of people living in poverty with those of other contesting actor groups and to integrate them in the framework of (central) state policies. Thus, the development practitioner should facilitate that lower-level needs, aspirations and potentials meet response at the higher influenceable/strategic and appreciated/normative levels with the ultimate aim of creating an effectively enabling environment that continuously facilitates and supports people to build sustainably upon their own strengths.</p>
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Think big, start small : restricted room for manoeuvre by practitioners in socio-spatial planning of peripheral regions in Third World Countries
S.n., 2000Co-Authors: Ham, A. Van Den, Veenstra J.Abstract:In a first part of this study van den Ham reacts to the increased free-market thinking and makes in chapter 1 a plea for continued efforts in active, public socio-spatial development policies in order to contribute to sustainable poverty alleviation in remote areas. This policy should aim at lifting restrictions, both material and socio-cultural, of people to realise their human capabilities to qualitatively and sustainably change the conditions of life and livelihood. It is argued why, from a development practitioner's perspective, it is important to understand the dynamics in both development thinking and doing. A research construct is introduced to explore the framework within which development paradigms, policies and practices at normative ( "what for" and " for whom?" ), strategic ( "how ") and operational ( "what, where, when, by and with whom?" ) level change over time. This change is assumed to be influenced by key-development practitioner's 'inner-guiding' individual beliefs and values, acquired academic insights and practical, learning-by-doing experiences. In practice the proposed policies seem to be very much constrained or stimulated by the development practitioner's appreciated, influenceable and controllable environment which are subject to changing power relations between the state, the corporate sector and civil society.In chapter 2 Veenstra elaborates the above research framework by highlighting the various components on the three axes depicting (1) inward-looking personal perspectives, focusing on habitual life-attitudes and roles of both indigenous and expatriate development practitioners (2) outward-looking, professional knowledge bases expanding in substantive, procedural as well as politico-institutional sense and (3) problem and action orientations as tried-out in time at various levels.In chapter 3 van den Ham reviews at a glance the origins of international development co-operation and the elements that in practice impact upon the outcome of foreign-supported, expatriate-staffed development projects; they relate to identification, organisational setting, the role of expatriate practitioners, co-operation with local counterparts, the time dimension, the role models in transfer of knowledge and "voice, loyal and exit" strategies of the practitioners.In the second part of the book seven case studies from Africa and Asia, all within the framework of international development assistance, are presented and related to the framework that has been introduced in the previous three chapters. In chapter 4 Veenstra explores his sequential experiences and struggles with emic and etic aspects in the evolving design of development programmes and practices in five projects in Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Yemen, Indonesia and Cameroon with special reference to area development planning and natural resource management. Both in sub-sections 4.6 and 6.3 Veenstra sums up his conclusions from outer and inner learning rounds in socio-spatial planning practices. In reaching after 'sustainable' livelihoods, -particularly in agrarian societies under patrimonial resource control in Sierra Leone, West Africa, of the 1960s-, strategic and operational incommensurabilities, with hindsight, cropped up as related to large-scale 'hard' infrastructure and agro-technical innovations. After actuality had completed its developmental course, shortcomings were, later on, laid open inside and between knowledge bases used, of corresponding policy instruments (not) employed, of statutory powers (not) granted and skilled personnel, budgets plus equipment (not) available. Above all, incongruity made itself manifest among stakeholders' normative outlooks holding sway at various territorial levels for prioritising their own resource claims. So it happened that in spite of 'common-good and great cause' intentions, 'kleptocratic' life styles both of rural and urban élites in a 'soft-state' setting were to be, distrustfully, endured.In the case of socialist single-party Tanzania of the 1970s 'integrated' rural development pointed toward self-reliance, poverty alleviation and fair distribution of social and physical infrastructure. These laudable aims were thwarted, however, by a over-burdened state-apparatus and the rural populace, of necessity, exiting both into 'black-market' sales of its produce and clientship-like distribution channels for local provision of its basic services,- without revenues for the state coffers. So, both the Tanzanian bureaucracy and its open-handed foreign-aid advisors made themselves not responsive and trust-worthy, - in terms of the 'good local governance' fashion of the 1990s. Under these adversary working conditions expatriate area planners were willy-nilly forced to self containment, - for instance, in our 'remote' case of the neglected Shinyanga Region. Here, a prudent step-by-step integration both in planning and eventual implementation was intended 'from overseas' through initially restricting sectoral, time/space, problem and resource development perspectives to prioritised, low-level and small-scale, concentrated area project packages. So, 'for the time being', long-haul normative policy making, including its medium-term strategic issues, were put aside; socio-spatial arithmetics were to prevail through index-Number, Factor-, and flow-analysis methods; thus entrapped, both expatriate and indigenous planning officers felt their 'rationalising' efforts being frustrated by short-sighted detachment in public choice situations - like ostriches bury sometimes their heads in the sand.In entering the 1980s, this neutral technocratic habitus was, -depending on politico-institutional contexts-, re-shaped towards those of mediatory brokers and advocates on behalf of beneficiary target groups. In the Rada'-case of North Yemen, 1981/82, phased social differentiation and changing leadership-styles in the long run were accounted for, but immediately shifting gears from operational towards strategic models of resource management emerged as leading theme. Here, in promoting still sustainable livelihoods, foreign development practitioners were to manoeuvre between the 'devil and the deep blue sea' of conflicting policy sets:on the one hand, in response to self-interests of national government headquarters and of private enterprise including 'progressive farmers', in favour of politico-institutional stability and free-market economic growth guided 'from above'; andon the other hand, in response to local community interests of deprived peasants and herdsmen in favour of equalisation, citizen participation and resource mobilisation 'from below', in combination with local value patterns and natural resources to be left in a well balanced order.After a decade of Rada'-development efforts, i.e. 1975-85, it was concluded that in spite (or because) of selectively applied, concentrated area project packages local village life remained principally unchanged; that at a higher level of district government implementation capacity improved through ad hoc foreign assistance; but that at the higher sub-national level of the province strategic planning and governance did not find their co-ordinating niche, neither divergent statesman-like leadership. Therefore, the two case-studies of Aceh in Indonesia, 1977-1986, and of the Tikar water catchment basin around 1990 in Cameroon, West Africa, refrained initially from formulating a e state, corporate sector and civil society was rather modest.In sub-sections 6.1 and 6.2 van den Ham concludes that the views of the key-players in the development projects can very much be traced to their previous experiences. The extent to which their views can be 'translated' into new approaches towards local area development is only to a small extent influenced by the 'power' of either the normative/inward-looking or the academic/outward-looking perspective of the concerned development practitioners. Effectuating the aspired 'real' participatory development, -implying redistribution of resources and (decision-making) power-, within the context of 'foreign' projects would for example run up against the resistance of vested interests; such an approach, whatever its desirability, can therefore not be pursued. Political room for manoeuvre turns out to be the determining Factor in the normative domain. However, there is usually (limited) room at the strategic and operational levels. There it appears that the design and implementation of the advocated strategies and practices is guided by the (normative) disposition of the key players towards the essence of development and their perception of the (strategic) role of the various actors in the development process. These are fed by a commensurate cognitive outlook on reality as well as their practical experiences. Again, substantive 'objective' knowledge bases appear to play only a rather limited role in the actual formulation of programmes and practices. Hence, the foreign-funded socio-spatial development projects 'ploughed through' with limited, isolated and above all 'accidental' (because very much depending on the individual practitioner involved and very specific local conditions capacitating or constraining the potential actors) experiments.With a view towards the future van den Ham outlines in sub-section 6.4 a changing context for local development practitioners. As in sub-section 6.5 van den Ham explains, this changing context poses new challenges to, and requires new roles to be played by (teams of) future development practitioners. It is suggested that specific capabilities are required to more structurally and successfully address the socio-spatial inequalities from the local level upwards. Development practitioners should not only be technically trained in a Number of skills that have traditionally been linked to the function of regional development officer. They rather should start with acquiring a thorough understanding of the dynamic way normative, strategic and operational dispositions are achieved in practice and can be influenced in an effective and legitimate way. Empathy towards other stakeholder's dispositions and potential contributions as actors in their own right, as well as self-critically reflecting on their own positioning, should development practitioners make more conscious of the link between personal or inner change, and social or outer change. This (un-)conscious reflection on implementation will contribute again to reshaping the perspectives on intended societal advancement and results in new approaches to deal with the outstanding issues.However, development practitioners should be aware that neither their own understanding of reality and their way to deal with it, nor the other stakeholder's positioning and his/her use of the results are fixed or value-neutral. These are all very much influenced by personal and professional life history, inner normative guidelines of individual beliefs as well as values, economic interests, gender, class - all very much time-, space- and context-bound possibilities and constraints. Therefore, it is for development practitioners highly important that they are capable of opening up space for public dialogue on the directions of development. They should be able to analyse the diverse options of the participants and identify the potential conflict of interest that will occur among the various stakeholders, before certain positions getting accepted as "appreciated' and translating them in (normatively) disputable strategies, projects and programmes.In addition to the 'traditional' technical skills in economics, regional science, physical geography, public administration, data management etc., communicative and analytical skills as well as abilities in the field of conflict prevention and resolution are needed to (help) translating the normative dispositions in strategic and operational terms. Next to engaging actor groups in shaping development processes, local development practitioners should also be able to facilitate reconciliation of the claims of people living in poverty with those of other contesting actor groups and to integrate them in the framework of (central) state policies. Thus, the development practitioner should facilitate that lower-level needs, aspirations and potentials meet response at the higher influenceable/strategic and appreciated/normative levels with the ultimate aim of creating an effectively enabling environment that continuously facilitates and supports people to build sustainably upon their own strengths.
