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Sissel ALBREKTSEN - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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the effect of dietary hydroxyproline supplementation on salmon salmo salar l fed high Plant Protein diets
Aquaculture, 2008Co-Authors: Anders Aksnes, Harald Mundheim, Jogeir Toppe, Sissel ALBREKTSENAbstract:Abstract Plant Protein sources normally used in aquaculture feed contain by nature low levels or no hydroxyproline. To evaluate the potential effect of dietary inclusion of hydroxyproline (hyp) in high Plant Protein diets, a regression design was carried out in an 88 days growth experiment with salmon. All experimental diets were equal with regard to chemical composition and level of the various ingredients, the only difference was the addition of crystalline hyp. Fish meal inclusion was 185 g kg − 1 . Five different inclusion levels of hyp were used in duplicate tanks; no addition, 0.7, 1.4, 2.8 and 5.6 g kg − 1 . One control diet was run in triplicate, added 2.8 g kg − 1 crystalline proline (pro). Growth was significantly improved by dietary hyp addition in a polynomial regression, indicating maximum growth at 2.9 g kg − 1 added hyp in which weight gain was improved by 14%. No effect was observed on feed intake or feed efficiency. Analysis of the whole vertebral column showed significantly increased hyp content, and lower ash content of vertebrae in fish fed increased dietary hyp inclusion. No difference was observed in fish fed diets with no addition and those fed dietary supplementation of pro. The results indicate that the anabolism of hyp may be limiting and that dietary hyp supplementation improved growth and vertebrae development or that hyp has some specific physiological or biochemical function. This information may be important in work to find replacement of fish meal in a sustainable growing global aquaculture industry and in work to prevent vertebrae disorders in farmed fish. This work suggests that a focus on hyp should be included in studies to evaluate amino acid requirements and studies of the impact of various Protein sources for fish feeds.
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inclusion of size fractionated fish hydrolysate in high Plant Protein diets for atlantic cod gadus morhua
Aquaculture, 2006Co-Authors: Anders Aksnes, Britt HOPE, Oistein Hostmark, Sissel ALBREKTSENAbstract:Fish hydrolysate was evaluated as feed ingredient in high Plant Protein diets in an 89 days feed experiment with Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). The fish hydrolysate was size fractionated by ultra- and nano-filtration and the various fractions were tested specifically as feed ingredients to trace any effect observed with the hydrolysate. All diets contained 68% of total Protein as Plant Protein, added as a mixture of corn gluten, full-fat soy bean meal, soy Protein concentrate and extracted soy bean meal. The diets were equal in Protein, lipid and energy. The control diet contained 21.8% fish meal. Fish hydrolysate was tested in another diet where one third of the fish meal Protein was exchanged with the fish hydrolysate. Retentate after ultra-filtration of fish hydrolysate and retentate and permeate after nano-filtration were used in three separate diets at dietary inclusion levels corresponding to the absolute dry matter level of the fractions in the hydrolysate. The cod tripled in weight during the experimental period. No significant differences were observed for growth or feed intake for any groups. The diets containing retentate from ultra- and nano-filtration showed lower feed efficiency than the control diet with fish meal or the diet containing fish hydrolysate or permeate after nano-filtration. In conclusion the results show that fish hydrolysate may successfully be used as a Protein source in high Plant Protein diets for Atlantic cod in exchange of fish meal. Removal of small molecules from the fish hydrolysate by filtration reveals poorer feed utilization indicating that this marine fraction of small compounds is important for optimal growth of Atlantic cod. This may be important in the discussion of increased dietary utilization of Plant Protein sources in feed for fish.
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Size-fractionated fish hydrolysate as feed ingredient for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed high Plant Protein diets. I: Growth, growth regulation and feed utilization
Aquaculture, 2006Co-Authors: Anders Aksnes, Britt HOPE, Bergthor Björnsson, E. Jönsson, Sissel ALBREKTSENAbstract:Six experimental diets were fed to rainbow trout to examine the effect of fish hydrolysate and ultra filtered fish hydrolysate on growth performance, feed utilization and growth regulation using diets low in dietary fish meal inclusion. One diet contained a high level of Plant Protein sources (90.6% of total dietary Protein) and a low level of fish meal (9.4% of dietary Protein). Two diets contained different levels of hydrolysate in exchange for the Plant Protein sources, reducing the Plant Protein level to 73.9% and 57.2%, respectively. Two further diets were identical in composition except that the hydrolysate was ultra filtered to remove low molecular weight compounds. A moderate level of fish meal was used in the sixth diet which had a dietary Plant Protein level of 57.0%. All diets were made equal in Protein, lipid, energy and lysine. The feeding trial lasted for 90 days and for the fastest growing group, fed moderate level of fish meal, the fish increased in weight from 149 g at start to a final weight of 443 g. All groups showed significant differences in growth and feed utilizations. Specific growth rates were; 0.30% day? 1 for the Plant Protein diet, 0.98% day? 1 for the high hydrolysate diet, 0.72% day? 1 for the group containing the high level of ultra filtered hydrolysate, and 1.21% day? 1 for the moderate fish meal diet. Feed efficiencies (g fish weight gain per g feed intake) were found to be 0.57 for Plant Protein diet, 0.97 for high level of hydrolysate, 0.83 for ultra filtered hydrolysate and 1.03 for the moderate fish meal diet. Half dietary inclusions of hydrolysate and ultra filtered hydrolysate revealed values between the Plant Protein diets and high levels of these ingredients, respectively. Feed consumption in percentage of average fish weight per day, correlated with the feed efficiency for all groups. PER, PPV and BV correlated with the differences in growth. Protein digestibilities were equal for all groups, while the moderate fish meal diet showed higher lipid and energy digestibilities than the Plant Protein diets. Although some of the differences may be due to growth inhibitors in Plant resources other explanations may be relevant. Plasma growth hormone (GH) levels were significantly higher in fish fed the Plant Protein diet than fish fed the fish meal or high hydrolysate diet, which is most likely a result of their poor feeding status. Plasma IGF-I levels were not affected by diet. Comparisons of groups with similar inclusion of Plant ingredients, and thus equal level of growth inhibitors, show that in removing small molecular weight compounds from fish hydrolysate, the growth and feed efficiency were significantly reduced. Some of these small compounds in fish hydrolysate thus seem to be essential for biological performance. Further, as fish meal revealed the best performance, fish muscle Protein is not the only nutrient that makes fish meal an essential ingredient in aqua feed for carnivorous fish. This information is important in the work to find replacement of fish meal in a sustainable growing global aquaculture industry.
Anders Aksnes - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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the effect of dietary hydroxyproline supplementation on salmon salmo salar l fed high Plant Protein diets
Aquaculture, 2008Co-Authors: Anders Aksnes, Harald Mundheim, Jogeir Toppe, Sissel ALBREKTSENAbstract:Abstract Plant Protein sources normally used in aquaculture feed contain by nature low levels or no hydroxyproline. To evaluate the potential effect of dietary inclusion of hydroxyproline (hyp) in high Plant Protein diets, a regression design was carried out in an 88 days growth experiment with salmon. All experimental diets were equal with regard to chemical composition and level of the various ingredients, the only difference was the addition of crystalline hyp. Fish meal inclusion was 185 g kg − 1 . Five different inclusion levels of hyp were used in duplicate tanks; no addition, 0.7, 1.4, 2.8 and 5.6 g kg − 1 . One control diet was run in triplicate, added 2.8 g kg − 1 crystalline proline (pro). Growth was significantly improved by dietary hyp addition in a polynomial regression, indicating maximum growth at 2.9 g kg − 1 added hyp in which weight gain was improved by 14%. No effect was observed on feed intake or feed efficiency. Analysis of the whole vertebral column showed significantly increased hyp content, and lower ash content of vertebrae in fish fed increased dietary hyp inclusion. No difference was observed in fish fed diets with no addition and those fed dietary supplementation of pro. The results indicate that the anabolism of hyp may be limiting and that dietary hyp supplementation improved growth and vertebrae development or that hyp has some specific physiological or biochemical function. This information may be important in work to find replacement of fish meal in a sustainable growing global aquaculture industry and in work to prevent vertebrae disorders in farmed fish. This work suggests that a focus on hyp should be included in studies to evaluate amino acid requirements and studies of the impact of various Protein sources for fish feeds.
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inclusion of size fractionated fish hydrolysate in high Plant Protein diets for atlantic cod gadus morhua
Aquaculture, 2006Co-Authors: Anders Aksnes, Britt HOPE, Oistein Hostmark, Sissel ALBREKTSENAbstract:Fish hydrolysate was evaluated as feed ingredient in high Plant Protein diets in an 89 days feed experiment with Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). The fish hydrolysate was size fractionated by ultra- and nano-filtration and the various fractions were tested specifically as feed ingredients to trace any effect observed with the hydrolysate. All diets contained 68% of total Protein as Plant Protein, added as a mixture of corn gluten, full-fat soy bean meal, soy Protein concentrate and extracted soy bean meal. The diets were equal in Protein, lipid and energy. The control diet contained 21.8% fish meal. Fish hydrolysate was tested in another diet where one third of the fish meal Protein was exchanged with the fish hydrolysate. Retentate after ultra-filtration of fish hydrolysate and retentate and permeate after nano-filtration were used in three separate diets at dietary inclusion levels corresponding to the absolute dry matter level of the fractions in the hydrolysate. The cod tripled in weight during the experimental period. No significant differences were observed for growth or feed intake for any groups. The diets containing retentate from ultra- and nano-filtration showed lower feed efficiency than the control diet with fish meal or the diet containing fish hydrolysate or permeate after nano-filtration. In conclusion the results show that fish hydrolysate may successfully be used as a Protein source in high Plant Protein diets for Atlantic cod in exchange of fish meal. Removal of small molecules from the fish hydrolysate by filtration reveals poorer feed utilization indicating that this marine fraction of small compounds is important for optimal growth of Atlantic cod. This may be important in the discussion of increased dietary utilization of Plant Protein sources in feed for fish.
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Size-fractionated fish hydrolysate as feed ingredient for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed high Plant Protein diets. I: Growth, growth regulation and feed utilization
Aquaculture, 2006Co-Authors: Anders Aksnes, Britt HOPE, Bergthor Björnsson, E. Jönsson, Sissel ALBREKTSENAbstract:Six experimental diets were fed to rainbow trout to examine the effect of fish hydrolysate and ultra filtered fish hydrolysate on growth performance, feed utilization and growth regulation using diets low in dietary fish meal inclusion. One diet contained a high level of Plant Protein sources (90.6% of total dietary Protein) and a low level of fish meal (9.4% of dietary Protein). Two diets contained different levels of hydrolysate in exchange for the Plant Protein sources, reducing the Plant Protein level to 73.9% and 57.2%, respectively. Two further diets were identical in composition except that the hydrolysate was ultra filtered to remove low molecular weight compounds. A moderate level of fish meal was used in the sixth diet which had a dietary Plant Protein level of 57.0%. All diets were made equal in Protein, lipid, energy and lysine. The feeding trial lasted for 90 days and for the fastest growing group, fed moderate level of fish meal, the fish increased in weight from 149 g at start to a final weight of 443 g. All groups showed significant differences in growth and feed utilizations. Specific growth rates were; 0.30% day? 1 for the Plant Protein diet, 0.98% day? 1 for the high hydrolysate diet, 0.72% day? 1 for the group containing the high level of ultra filtered hydrolysate, and 1.21% day? 1 for the moderate fish meal diet. Feed efficiencies (g fish weight gain per g feed intake) were found to be 0.57 for Plant Protein diet, 0.97 for high level of hydrolysate, 0.83 for ultra filtered hydrolysate and 1.03 for the moderate fish meal diet. Half dietary inclusions of hydrolysate and ultra filtered hydrolysate revealed values between the Plant Protein diets and high levels of these ingredients, respectively. Feed consumption in percentage of average fish weight per day, correlated with the feed efficiency for all groups. PER, PPV and BV correlated with the differences in growth. Protein digestibilities were equal for all groups, while the moderate fish meal diet showed higher lipid and energy digestibilities than the Plant Protein diets. Although some of the differences may be due to growth inhibitors in Plant resources other explanations may be relevant. Plasma growth hormone (GH) levels were significantly higher in fish fed the Plant Protein diet than fish fed the fish meal or high hydrolysate diet, which is most likely a result of their poor feeding status. Plasma IGF-I levels were not affected by diet. Comparisons of groups with similar inclusion of Plant ingredients, and thus equal level of growth inhibitors, show that in removing small molecular weight compounds from fish hydrolysate, the growth and feed efficiency were significantly reduced. Some of these small compounds in fish hydrolysate thus seem to be essential for biological performance. Further, as fish meal revealed the best performance, fish muscle Protein is not the only nutrient that makes fish meal an essential ingredient in aqua feed for carnivorous fish. This information is important in the work to find replacement of fish meal in a sustainable growing global aquaculture industry.
Sadasivam Kaushik - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Modifications of digestive enzymes in trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) in response to dietary fish meal replacement by Plant Protein sources
Aquaculture, 2008Co-Authors: E. Santigosa, Sadasivam Kaushik, Francoise Medale, J. Sanchez, J. Perez-sanchez, M.a. GallardoAbstract:Three experimental diets in which fish meal was partially (50 and 75%, named PP50 and PP75 diets, respectively) or totally replaced (PP100 diet) by Plant Protein sources were fed to rainbow trout and gilthead sea bream. We studied the effects of these diets on digestive enzymes in Comparison to fish fed fish meal diets (FM). A mixture of vegetal ingredients (corn gluten meal, wheat gluten, extruded peas and rapeseed meal) was used to meet the amino acid requirements of the fish. Over a 12-week trial, four groups of the two species were fed one experimental diet twice a day until they showed satiety. After the growth period, post-prandial protease and alpha-amylase activities in proximal intestine were measured. Trout fed fish meal as the sole Protein Source (FM diet) showed a peak in total protease activity 3 h post-feeding; however, trout fed Plant Protein based diets (PP diets) did not register a peak in activity of these enzymes. In FM fed sea bream, proteolytic activity peaked in the most proximal intestinal segment 6 h post-feeding. This peak was also observed in PP fed sea bream, although the magnitude tended to decrease as the percentage of Plant Protein increased. This reduction was due to the specific inhibition of chymotrypsinlike bands, although a slight increase in trypsin secretion was detected in the zymograms of this species. The replacement of fish meal by Plant Protein did not affect alpha-amylase activity in either trout or sea bream. In sea bream proximal intestine histology was also studied. The PP100 fed group showed shorter folds and smaller goblet cell population when compared to FM fed group. In response to feeding the PP75 and PP100 diets, sea bream and trout showed a significant increase in relative intestinal length. Despite this compensatory mechanism, final weights of the two species diminished: however, this decrease exceeded 20% only in the case of groups fed the PP100 diets. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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Protein growth performance amino acid utilisation and somatotropic axis responsiveness to fish meal replacement by Plant Protein sources in gilthead sea bream sparus aurata
Aquaculture, 2004Co-Authors: Pedro Gomezrequeni, Samuel A.m. Martin, Sadasivam Kaushik, Monica Mingarro, Josep A Calduchginer, Francoise Medale, D F Houlihan, Jaume PerezsanchezAbstract:Partial or total replacement of fish meal by a mixture of Plant Protein sources (corn gluten meal, wheat gluten, extruded peas, rapeseed meal) balanced with indispensable amino acids (IAA) was examined in juvenile gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) over the course of a 12-week growth trial. A diet with fish meal (FM) as the sole Protein source was compared to diets with 50%, 75% and 100% of replacement (PP50, PP75, PP100). Protein retention was improved with more Plant Protein supply, and just a slight decrease in the final weight gain was found in fish fed PP50 and PP75 diets. However, in the PP100 group, weight gain was depressed up to 30% mainly as the result of a marked reduction of feed intake. These fish also showed a lower fat gain along with a marked hypocholesterolemic effect. Dietary treatment did not alter the hepatic activity of amino acid catabolising enzymes (alanine aminotransferase (ALAT), aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH)), although the size of the total muscle free amino acid (FAA) pool was increased by more Plant Protein supply. The activity of the somatotropic axis also varied among experimental groups, and the up-regulation of circulating growth hormone (GH) levels with a high Plant Protein supply followed the decrease in growth rates, plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), and liver mRNA transcripts of IGF-I and GH receptors. This catabolic feature evidenced a liver desensitisation to the anabolic action of GH in the PP100 group, and to a lesser extent in the PP75 group. Taken together all these findings, up to 50-75% of fish meal replacement seems to be feasible with IAA supplementation, but further research is needed to fully identify the responsible factors for the depressed feed intake in order to achieve a full replacement in a fish species having high dietary Protein requirements.
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almost total replacement of fish meal by Plant Protein sources in the diet of a marine teleost the european seabass dicentrarchus labrax
Aquaculture, 2004Co-Authors: Sadasivam Kaushik, Denis Coves, Gilbert Dutto, D BlancAbstract:Abstract Five practical diets in which the supply of Protein from fish meal was decreased gradually from 100% to about 2% and replaced by Plant Protein sources were formulated. European seabass weighing about 190 g were fed these diets for 12 weeks at a water temperature of 22 °C. Feed was dispensed using automatic self-feeders and voluntary feed intake (VFI) was closely monitored. We did not find any significant difference among diets in the apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC) of dry matter (80–82%), Protein (94–96%), energy (88–92%) or phosphorus (49–58%). Replacement of fish meal by Plant Protein ingredients did not influence VFI. All groups had very good growth rates (DGI above 1.3%/day) and there were no significant differences in growth rate, feed efficiency or in daily nitrogen gains among groups. There was, however, a slight increase in fat deposition in fish fed diets with Plant Protein sources. Ammonia nitrogen and soluble phosphorus excretion rates were measured. Nitrogen and phosphorus balance studies indicated that fish meal replacement by Plant ingredients led to a slight increase in nitrogen losses (from 83 to 103 g N/kg weight gain) but led to a significant reduction in total phosphorus losses (from 13 to 5 g P/kg weight gain). These results combined with the remarkable acceptability of diets containing high levels of Plant Protein ingredients with identical growth performances of European seabass show clearly that dietary fish meal levels can be considerably reduced without any adverse consequence in terms of somatic growth or nitrogen utilisation.
Francoise Medale - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Modifications of digestive enzymes in trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) in response to dietary fish meal replacement by Plant Protein sources
Aquaculture, 2008Co-Authors: E. Santigosa, Sadasivam Kaushik, Francoise Medale, J. Sanchez, J. Perez-sanchez, M.a. GallardoAbstract:Three experimental diets in which fish meal was partially (50 and 75%, named PP50 and PP75 diets, respectively) or totally replaced (PP100 diet) by Plant Protein sources were fed to rainbow trout and gilthead sea bream. We studied the effects of these diets on digestive enzymes in Comparison to fish fed fish meal diets (FM). A mixture of vegetal ingredients (corn gluten meal, wheat gluten, extruded peas and rapeseed meal) was used to meet the amino acid requirements of the fish. Over a 12-week trial, four groups of the two species were fed one experimental diet twice a day until they showed satiety. After the growth period, post-prandial protease and alpha-amylase activities in proximal intestine were measured. Trout fed fish meal as the sole Protein Source (FM diet) showed a peak in total protease activity 3 h post-feeding; however, trout fed Plant Protein based diets (PP diets) did not register a peak in activity of these enzymes. In FM fed sea bream, proteolytic activity peaked in the most proximal intestinal segment 6 h post-feeding. This peak was also observed in PP fed sea bream, although the magnitude tended to decrease as the percentage of Plant Protein increased. This reduction was due to the specific inhibition of chymotrypsinlike bands, although a slight increase in trypsin secretion was detected in the zymograms of this species. The replacement of fish meal by Plant Protein did not affect alpha-amylase activity in either trout or sea bream. In sea bream proximal intestine histology was also studied. The PP100 fed group showed shorter folds and smaller goblet cell population when compared to FM fed group. In response to feeding the PP75 and PP100 diets, sea bream and trout showed a significant increase in relative intestinal length. Despite this compensatory mechanism, final weights of the two species diminished: however, this decrease exceeded 20% only in the case of groups fed the PP100 diets. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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Protein growth performance amino acid utilisation and somatotropic axis responsiveness to fish meal replacement by Plant Protein sources in gilthead sea bream sparus aurata
Aquaculture, 2004Co-Authors: Pedro Gomezrequeni, Samuel A.m. Martin, Sadasivam Kaushik, Monica Mingarro, Josep A Calduchginer, Francoise Medale, D F Houlihan, Jaume PerezsanchezAbstract:Partial or total replacement of fish meal by a mixture of Plant Protein sources (corn gluten meal, wheat gluten, extruded peas, rapeseed meal) balanced with indispensable amino acids (IAA) was examined in juvenile gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) over the course of a 12-week growth trial. A diet with fish meal (FM) as the sole Protein source was compared to diets with 50%, 75% and 100% of replacement (PP50, PP75, PP100). Protein retention was improved with more Plant Protein supply, and just a slight decrease in the final weight gain was found in fish fed PP50 and PP75 diets. However, in the PP100 group, weight gain was depressed up to 30% mainly as the result of a marked reduction of feed intake. These fish also showed a lower fat gain along with a marked hypocholesterolemic effect. Dietary treatment did not alter the hepatic activity of amino acid catabolising enzymes (alanine aminotransferase (ALAT), aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH)), although the size of the total muscle free amino acid (FAA) pool was increased by more Plant Protein supply. The activity of the somatotropic axis also varied among experimental groups, and the up-regulation of circulating growth hormone (GH) levels with a high Plant Protein supply followed the decrease in growth rates, plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), and liver mRNA transcripts of IGF-I and GH receptors. This catabolic feature evidenced a liver desensitisation to the anabolic action of GH in the PP100 group, and to a lesser extent in the PP75 group. Taken together all these findings, up to 50-75% of fish meal replacement seems to be feasible with IAA supplementation, but further research is needed to fully identify the responsible factors for the depressed feed intake in order to achieve a full replacement in a fish species having high dietary Protein requirements.
M.a. Gallardo - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Modifications of digestive enzymes in trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) in response to dietary fish meal replacement by Plant Protein sources
Aquaculture, 2008Co-Authors: E. Santigosa, Sadasivam Kaushik, Francoise Medale, J. Sanchez, J. Perez-sanchez, M.a. GallardoAbstract:Three experimental diets in which fish meal was partially (50 and 75%, named PP50 and PP75 diets, respectively) or totally replaced (PP100 diet) by Plant Protein sources were fed to rainbow trout and gilthead sea bream. We studied the effects of these diets on digestive enzymes in Comparison to fish fed fish meal diets (FM). A mixture of vegetal ingredients (corn gluten meal, wheat gluten, extruded peas and rapeseed meal) was used to meet the amino acid requirements of the fish. Over a 12-week trial, four groups of the two species were fed one experimental diet twice a day until they showed satiety. After the growth period, post-prandial protease and alpha-amylase activities in proximal intestine were measured. Trout fed fish meal as the sole Protein Source (FM diet) showed a peak in total protease activity 3 h post-feeding; however, trout fed Plant Protein based diets (PP diets) did not register a peak in activity of these enzymes. In FM fed sea bream, proteolytic activity peaked in the most proximal intestinal segment 6 h post-feeding. This peak was also observed in PP fed sea bream, although the magnitude tended to decrease as the percentage of Plant Protein increased. This reduction was due to the specific inhibition of chymotrypsinlike bands, although a slight increase in trypsin secretion was detected in the zymograms of this species. The replacement of fish meal by Plant Protein did not affect alpha-amylase activity in either trout or sea bream. In sea bream proximal intestine histology was also studied. The PP100 fed group showed shorter folds and smaller goblet cell population when compared to FM fed group. In response to feeding the PP75 and PP100 diets, sea bream and trout showed a significant increase in relative intestinal length. Despite this compensatory mechanism, final weights of the two species diminished: however, this decrease exceeded 20% only in the case of groups fed the PP100 diets. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.