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Marie Lopez - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Genomic Evidence for Local Adaptation of Hunter-Gatherers to the African Rainforest
Current Biology - CB, 2019Co-Authors: Marie Lopez, Jeremy Choin, Martin Sikora, Katherine Siddle, Christine Harmant, Helio Costa, Martin Silvert, Patrick Mouguiama-daouda, Jean-marie Hombert, Alain FromentAbstract:African Rainforests support exceptionally high biodiversity and host the world's largest number of active hunter-gatherers [1-3]. The genetic history of African Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring farmers is characterized by an ancient divergence more than 100,000 years ago, together with recent population collapses and expansions, respectively [4-12]. While the demographic past of Rainforest hunter-gatherers has been deeply characterized, important aspects of their history of genetic adaptation remain unclear. Here, we investigated how these groups have adapted-through classic selective sweeps, polygenic adaptation, and selection since admixture-to the challenging Rainforest environments. To do so, we analyzed a combined dataset of 566 high-coverage exomes, including 266 newly generated exomes, from 14 populations of Rainforest hunter-gatherers and farmers, together with 40 newly generated, low-coverage genomes. We find evidence for a strong, shared selective sweep among all hunter-gatherer groups in the regulatory region of TRPS1-primarily involved in morphological traits. We detect strong signals of polygenic adaptation for height and life history traits such as reproductive age; however, the latter appear to result from pervasive pleiotropy of height-associated genes. Furthermore, polygenic adaptation signals for functions related to responses of mast cells to allergens and microbes, the IL-2 signaling pathway, and host interactions with viruses support a history of pathogen-driven selection in the Rainforest. Finally, we find that genes involved in heart and bone development and immune responses are enriched in both selection signals and local hunter-gatherer ancestry in admixed populations, suggesting that selection has maintained adaptive variation in the face of recent gene flow from farmers.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P<0.001). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., “cardiac muscle tissue development”; P=0.001). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The "pygmy" phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with "growth factor binding" functions ([Formula: see text]). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., "cardiac muscle tissue development"; [Formula: see text]). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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Polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in African and Asian Rainforest hunter-gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Luis B Barreiro, Genelle Harrison, Lluis Quintana-murci, George H. PerryAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P
Luis B Barreiro - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P<0.001). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., “cardiac muscle tissue development”; P=0.001). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The "pygmy" phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with "growth factor binding" functions ([Formula: see text]). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., "cardiac muscle tissue development"; [Formula: see text]). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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Polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in African and Asian Rainforest hunter-gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Luis B Barreiro, Genelle Harrison, Lluis Quintana-murci, George H. PerryAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P
Etienne Patin - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P<0.001). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., “cardiac muscle tissue development”; P=0.001). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The "pygmy" phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with "growth factor binding" functions ([Formula: see text]). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., "cardiac muscle tissue development"; [Formula: see text]). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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Polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in African and Asian Rainforest hunter-gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Luis B Barreiro, Genelle Harrison, Lluis Quintana-murci, George H. PerryAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P
Christina M Bergey - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P<0.001). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., “cardiac muscle tissue development”; P=0.001). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The "pygmy" phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with "growth factor binding" functions ([Formula: see text]). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., "cardiac muscle tissue development"; [Formula: see text]). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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Polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in African and Asian Rainforest hunter-gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Luis B Barreiro, Genelle Harrison, Lluis Quintana-murci, George H. PerryAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P
Lluis Quintanamurci - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The “pygmy” phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with “growth factor binding” functions (P<0.001). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., “cardiac muscle tissue development”; P=0.001). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
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polygenic adaptation and convergent evolution on growth and cardiac genetic pathways in african and asian Rainforest hunter gatherers
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018Co-Authors: Christina M Bergey, Marie Lopez, Genelle F Harrison, Etienne Patin, Jacob Cohen, Lluis Quintanamurci, Luis B BarreiroAbstract:Different human populations facing similar environmental challenges have sometimes evolved convergent biological adaptations, for example, hypoxia resistance at high altitudes and depigmented skin in northern latitudes on separate continents. The "pygmy" phenotype (small adult body size), characteristic of hunter-gatherer populations inhabiting both African and Asian tropical Rainforests, is often highlighted as another case of convergent adaptation in humans. However, the degree to which phenotypic convergence in this polygenic trait is due to convergent versus population-specific genetic changes is unknown. To address this question, we analyzed high-coverage sequence data from the protein-coding portion of the genomes of two pairs of populations: Batwa Rainforest hunter-gatherers and neighboring Bakiga agriculturalists from Uganda and Andamanese Rainforest hunter-gatherers and Brahmin agriculturalists from India. We observed signatures of convergent positive selection between the Rainforest hunter-gatherers across the set of genes with "growth factor binding" functions ([Formula: see text]). Unexpectedly, for the Rainforest groups, we also observed convergent and population-specific signatures of positive selection in pathways related to cardiac development (e.g., "cardiac muscle tissue development"; [Formula: see text]). We hypothesize that the growth hormone subresponsiveness likely underlying the adult small body-size phenotype may have led to compensatory changes in cardiac pathways, in which this hormone also plays an essential role. Importantly, in the agriculturalist populations, we did not observe similar patterns of positive selection on sets of genes associated with growth or cardiac development, indicating our results most likely reflect a history of convergent adaptation to the similar ecology of Rainforests rather than a more general evolutionary pattern.
