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Isabelle Peretz - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Random Feedback Makes Listeners Tone-Deaf
Scientific Reports, 2018Co-Authors: Dominique T Vuvan, Benjamin Rich Zendel, Isabelle PeretzAbstract:The mental representation of pitch structure (tonal knowledge) is a core component of musical experience and is learned implicitly through exposure to music. One theory of congenital amusia (Tone Deafness) posits that conscious access to tonal knowledge is disrupted, leading to a severe deficit of music cognition. We tested this idea by providing random performance feedback to neurotypical listeners while they listened to melodies for tonal incongruities and had their electrical brain activity monitored. The introduction of random feedback was associated with a reduction of accuracy and confidence, and a suppression of the late positive brain response usually elicited by conscious detection of a tonal violation. These effects mirror the behavioural and neurophysiological profile of amusia. In contrast, random feedback was associated with an increase in the amplitude of the early right anterior negativity, possibly due to heightened attention to the experimental task. This successful simulation of amusia in a normal brain highlights the key role of feedback in learning, and thereby provides a new avenue for the rehabilitation of learning disorders.
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Prevalence of congenital amusia
European Journal of Human Genetics, 2017Co-Authors: Isabelle Peretz, Dominique T VuvanAbstract:Congenital amusia (commonly known as Tone Deafness) is a lifelong musical disorder that affects 4% of the population according to a single estimate based on a single test from 1980. Here we present the first large-based measure of prevalence with a sample of 20 000 participants, which does not rely on self-referral. On the basis of three objective tests and a questionnaire, we show that (a) the prevalence of congenital amusia is only 1.5%, with slightly more females than males, unlike other developmental disorders where males often predominate; (b) self-disclosure is a reliable index of congenital amusia, which suggests that congenital amusia is hereditary, with 46% first-degree relatives similarly affected; (c) the deficit is not attenuated by musical training and (d) it emerges in relative isolation from other cognitive disorder, except for spatial orientation problems. Hence, we suggest that congenital amusia is likely to result from genetic variations that affect musical abilities specifically.
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congenital amusia or Tone Deafness interferes with pitch processing in Tone languages
Frontiers in Psychology, 2011Co-Authors: Barbara Tillmann, Denis K Burnham, Sebastien Nguyen, Nicolas Grimault, Nathalie Gosselin, Isabelle PeretzAbstract:Congenital amusia is a neurogenetic disorder that affects music processing and that is ascribed to a deficit in pitch processing. We investigated whether this deficit extended to pitch processing in speech, notably the pitch changes used to contrast lexical Tones in tonal languages. Congenital amusics and matched controls, all non-tonal language speakers, were tested for lexical Tone discrimination in Mandarin Chinese (Experiment 1) and in Thai (Experiment 2). Tones were presented in pairs and participants were required to make same/different judgments. Experiment 2 additionally included musical analogs of Thai Tones for comparison. Performance of congenital amusics was inferior to that of controls for all materials, suggesting a domain-general pitch-processing deficit. The pitch deficit of amusia is thus not limited to music, but may compromise the ability to process and learn tonal languages. Combined with acoustic analyses of the Tone material, the present findings provide new insights into the nature of the pitch-processing deficit exhibited by amusics.
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speech intonation perception deficits in musical Tone Deafness congenital amusia
Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2008Co-Authors: Aniruddh D Patel, Jessica M. Foxton, Meredith Wong, Aliette Lochy, Isabelle PeretzAbstract:TO WHAT EXTENT DO MUSIC and language share neural mechanisms for processing pitch patterns? Musical Tone-Deafness (amusia) provides important evidence on this question. Amusics have problems with musical melody perception, yet early work suggested that they had no problems with the perception of speech intonation (Ayotte, Peretz, & Hyde, 2002). However, here we show that about 30% of amusics from independent studies (British and French-Canadian) have difficulty discriminating a statement from a question on the basis of a final pitch fall or rise. This suggests that pitch direction perception deficits in amusia (known from previous psychophysical work) can extend to speech. For British amusics, the direction deficit is related to the rate of change of the final pitch glide in statements/ questions, with increased discrimination difficulty when rates are relatively slow. These findings suggest that amusia provides a useful window on the neural relations between melodic processing in language and music.
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cortical thickness in congenital amusia when less is better than more
The Journal of Neuroscience, 2007Co-Authors: Krista L Hyde, Timothy D Griffiths, Jason P Lerch, Robert J Zatorre, Alan C Evans, Isabelle PeretzAbstract:Congenital amusia (or Tone Deafness) is a lifelong disorder characterized by impairments in the perception and production of music. A previous voxel-based morphometry (VBM) study revealed that amusic individuals had reduced white matter in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) relative to musically intact controls (Hyde et al., 2006). However, this VBM study also revealed associated increases in gray matter in the same right IFG region of amusics. The objective of the present study was to better understand this morphological brain anomaly by way of cortical thickness measures that provide a more specific measure of cortical morphology relative to VBM. We found that amusic subjects (n = 21) have thicker cortex in the right IFG and the right auditory cortex relative to musically intact controls (n = 26). These cortical thickness differences suggest the presence of cortical malformations in the amusic brain, such as abnormal neuronal migration, that may have compromised the normal development of a right frontotemporal pathway.
Gottfried Schlaug - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Developmental Perceptual Impairments: Cases When Tone-Deafness and Prosopagnosia Co-occur.
Frontiers in human neuroscience, 2018Co-Authors: Sébastien Paquette, Sherryse Corrow, Stephanie S. Buss, Jason J.s. Barton, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Studies have shown subtle gray and white matter abnormalities in subjects with several developmental disorders including prosopagnosia, Tone-Deafness, and dyslexia. Correlational evidence suggests that Tone-Deafness and dyslexia tend to co-occur, suggesting a link between these two developmental disorders. However, it is not known whether Tone-Deafness can also be associated with other developmental disorders such as impaired face recognition or prosopagnosia. We addressed this question by assessing face perception abilities in a group of Tone-deaf individuals and matched non-Tone-deaf subjects. The Cambridge (CFMT) and the Warrington (WRMT) face memory tests were used to assess face processing in the combined group of 12, out of which six tested in the Tone-deaf range. Only Tone-deaf participants (two out of six) scored in the impaired range on the CFMT, one of whom was also impaired on the WRMT face memory test. Furthermore, the melodic composite score of all participants on the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia significantly correlated with their face recognition score on the CFMT. Our results suggest that in some cases Tone-Deafness might co-occur with face recognition impairments. It is implausible that both deficits are linked to a single cognitive dysfunction that spans different perceptual systems in different modalities. They are likely associated with a common pathogenetic mechanism of early development that leads to anomalies affecting the function of different brain systems or the connection between regions.
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Reverse Engineering Tone-Deafness: Disrupting Pitch-Matching by Creating Temporary Dysfunctions in the Auditory-Motor Network
Frontiers in human neuroscience, 2018Co-Authors: Anja Hohmann, Psyche Loui, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Perceiving and producing vocal sounds are important functions of the auditory-motor system and are fundamental to communication. Prior studies have identified a network of brain regions involved in pitch production, specifically pitch matching. Here we reverse engineer the function of the auditory perception-production network by targeting specific cortical regions (e.g., right and left posterior superior temporal (pSTG) and posterior inferior frontal gyri (pIFG)) with cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)-commonly found to decrease excitability in the underlying cortical region-allowing us to causally test the role of particular nodes in this network. Performance on a pitch-matching task was determined before and after 20 min of cathodal stimulation. Acoustic analyses of pitch productions showed impaired accuracy after cathodal stimulation to the left pIFG and the right pSTG in comparison to sham stimulation. Both regions share particular roles in the feedback and feedforward motor control of pitched vocal production with a differential hemispheric dominance.
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Impaired learning of event frequencies in Tone Deafness.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2012Co-Authors: Psyche Loui, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Musical knowledge is ubiquitous, effortless, and implicitly acquired all over the world via exposure to musical materials in one's culture. In contrast, one group of individuals who show insensitivity to music, specifically the inability to discriminate pitches and melodies, is the Tone-deaf. In this study, we asked whether difficulties in pitch and melody discrimination among the Tone-deaf could be related to learning difficulties, and, if so, what processes of learning might be affected in the Tone-deaf. We investigated the learning of frequency information in a new musical system in Tone-deaf individuals and matched controls. Results showed significantly impaired learning abilities in frequency matching in the Tone-deaf. This impairment was positively correlated with the severity of Tone Deafness as assessed by the Montreal Battery for Evaluation of Amusia. Taken together, the results suggest that Tone Deafness is characterized by an impaired ability to acquire frequency information from pitched materials in the sound environment.
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Relating Pitch Awareness to Phonemic Awareness in Children: Implications for Tone-Deafness and Dyslexia
Frontiers in psychology, 2011Co-Authors: Psyche Loui, Kenneth Kroog, Jennifer Zuk, Ellen Winner, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Language and music are complex cognitive and neural functions that rely on awareness of one's own sound productions. Information on the awareness of vocal pitch, and its relation to phonemic awareness which is crucial for learning to read, will be important for understanding the relationship between Tone-Deafness and developmental language disorders such as dyslexia. Here we show that phonemic awareness skills are positively correlated with pitch perception–production skills in children. Children between the ages of seven and nine were tested on pitch perception and production, phonemic awareness, and IQ. Results showed a significant positive correlation between pitch perception–production and phonemic awareness, suggesting that the relationship between musical and linguistic sound processing is intimately linked to awareness at the level of pitch and phonemes. Since Tone-Deafness is a pitch-related impairment and dyslexia is a deficit of phonemic awareness, we suggest that dyslexia and Tone-Deafness may have a shared and/or common neural basis.
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Tone Deafness a new disconnection syndrome
The Journal of Neuroscience, 2009Co-Authors: Psyche Loui, David C Alsop, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Communicating with one9s environment requires efficient neural interaction between action and perception. Neural substrates of sound perception and production are connected by the arcuate fasciculus (AF). Although AF is known to be involved in language, its roles in non-linguistic functions are unexplored. Here, we show that Tone-deaf people, with impaired sound perception and production, have reduced AF connectivity. Diffusion tensor tractography and psychophysics were assessed in Tone-deaf individuals and matched controls. Abnormally reduced AF connectivity was observed in the Tone deaf. Furthermore, we observed relationships between AF and auditory–motor behavior: superior and inferior AF branches predict psychophysically assessed pitch discrimination and sound production perception abilities, respectively. This neural abnormality suggests that Tone Deafness leads to a reduction in connectivity resulting in pitch-related impairments. Results support a dual-stream anatomy of sound production and perception implicated in vocal communications. By identifying white matter differences and their psychophysical correlates, results contribute to our understanding of how neural connectivity subserves behavior.
Psyche Loui - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Reverse Engineering Tone-Deafness: Disrupting Pitch-Matching by Creating Temporary Dysfunctions in the Auditory-Motor Network
Frontiers in human neuroscience, 2018Co-Authors: Anja Hohmann, Psyche Loui, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Perceiving and producing vocal sounds are important functions of the auditory-motor system and are fundamental to communication. Prior studies have identified a network of brain regions involved in pitch production, specifically pitch matching. Here we reverse engineer the function of the auditory perception-production network by targeting specific cortical regions (e.g., right and left posterior superior temporal (pSTG) and posterior inferior frontal gyri (pIFG)) with cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)-commonly found to decrease excitability in the underlying cortical region-allowing us to causally test the role of particular nodes in this network. Performance on a pitch-matching task was determined before and after 20 min of cathodal stimulation. Acoustic analyses of pitch productions showed impaired accuracy after cathodal stimulation to the left pIFG and the right pSTG in comparison to sham stimulation. Both regions share particular roles in the feedback and feedforward motor control of pitched vocal production with a differential hemispheric dominance.
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Impaired learning of event frequencies in Tone Deafness.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2012Co-Authors: Psyche Loui, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Musical knowledge is ubiquitous, effortless, and implicitly acquired all over the world via exposure to musical materials in one's culture. In contrast, one group of individuals who show insensitivity to music, specifically the inability to discriminate pitches and melodies, is the Tone-deaf. In this study, we asked whether difficulties in pitch and melody discrimination among the Tone-deaf could be related to learning difficulties, and, if so, what processes of learning might be affected in the Tone-deaf. We investigated the learning of frequency information in a new musical system in Tone-deaf individuals and matched controls. Results showed significantly impaired learning abilities in frequency matching in the Tone-deaf. This impairment was positively correlated with the severity of Tone Deafness as assessed by the Montreal Battery for Evaluation of Amusia. Taken together, the results suggest that Tone Deafness is characterized by an impaired ability to acquire frequency information from pitched materials in the sound environment.
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Relating Pitch Awareness to Phonemic Awareness in Children: Implications for Tone-Deafness and Dyslexia
Frontiers in psychology, 2011Co-Authors: Psyche Loui, Kenneth Kroog, Jennifer Zuk, Ellen Winner, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Language and music are complex cognitive and neural functions that rely on awareness of one's own sound productions. Information on the awareness of vocal pitch, and its relation to phonemic awareness which is crucial for learning to read, will be important for understanding the relationship between Tone-Deafness and developmental language disorders such as dyslexia. Here we show that phonemic awareness skills are positively correlated with pitch perception–production skills in children. Children between the ages of seven and nine were tested on pitch perception and production, phonemic awareness, and IQ. Results showed a significant positive correlation between pitch perception–production and phonemic awareness, suggesting that the relationship between musical and linguistic sound processing is intimately linked to awareness at the level of pitch and phonemes. Since Tone-Deafness is a pitch-related impairment and dyslexia is a deficit of phonemic awareness, we suggest that dyslexia and Tone-Deafness may have a shared and/or common neural basis.
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Tone Deafness a new disconnection syndrome
The Journal of Neuroscience, 2009Co-Authors: Psyche Loui, David C Alsop, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Communicating with one9s environment requires efficient neural interaction between action and perception. Neural substrates of sound perception and production are connected by the arcuate fasciculus (AF). Although AF is known to be involved in language, its roles in non-linguistic functions are unexplored. Here, we show that Tone-deaf people, with impaired sound perception and production, have reduced AF connectivity. Diffusion tensor tractography and psychophysics were assessed in Tone-deaf individuals and matched controls. Abnormally reduced AF connectivity was observed in the Tone deaf. Furthermore, we observed relationships between AF and auditory–motor behavior: superior and inferior AF branches predict psychophysically assessed pitch discrimination and sound production perception abilities, respectively. This neural abnormality suggests that Tone Deafness leads to a reduction in connectivity resulting in pitch-related impairments. Results support a dual-stream anatomy of sound production and perception implicated in vocal communications. By identifying white matter differences and their psychophysical correlates, results contribute to our understanding of how neural connectivity subserves behavior.
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Action-perception mismatch in Tone-Deafness.
Current biology : CB, 2008Co-Authors: Psyche Loui, Frank H. Guenther, Christoph Mathys, Gottfried SchlaugAbstract:Summary The source of conscious experience has fueled scientific and philosophical debates for centuries. In the auditory and motor domains, it is not yet known how consciously and unconsciously obtained information combine to enable the production and perception of speaking and singing. Both forms of vocalization rely upon the interaction of brain networks responsible for perception and action. While perceptual experience and executed actions are usually well coupled, dissociations between perception and action can be informative. Here we report such a dissociation: Tone-deaf individuals, who cannot consciously perceive pitch differences, can paradoxically reproduce pitch intervals in correct directions. Our results suggest that multiple neural pathways have evolved for sound perception and production, so that pitch information sufficient for intact speech can be obtained separately from pathways necessary for conscious perception.
Timothy D Griffiths - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Tone Deafness a model complex cortical phenotype
Clinical Medicine, 2008Co-Authors: Timothy D GriffithsAbstract:We all know people with Tone Deafness: these are the people who get thrown out of the choir at school. Although Tone Deafness is recognised as an output disorder, recent studies have characterised it as one of music perception in the absence of Deafness or any associated cognitive disorder. The disorder can therefore be characterised as a form of auditory agnosia. This article considers how the phenotype might be deconstructed to the level of a causal deficit in the perception of pitch pattern. Based on our evolving understanding of the normal brain bases for this process a cortical deficit beyond primary cortex would be predicted. In Tone Deafness, structural cortical variations have been demonstrated by recent studies that detect subtle changes in the cortical mantle and underlying white matter: these changes are within a right hemisphere network for pitch pattern analysis and working memory for pitch. Studies of multiply affected families are underway to see if the disruption of this network can be caused by single genes. This disorder therefore offers the opportunity to study how a complex phenotype can be characterised as a cortical perceptual disorder potentially explained by a single gene or molecule. Although Tone Deafness is not pernicious, the underlying abnormality may prove to be a disorder of cortical connectivity that provides a model for disorders that are more so, such as schizophrenia.
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cortical thickness in congenital amusia when less is better than more
The Journal of Neuroscience, 2007Co-Authors: Krista L Hyde, Timothy D Griffiths, Jason P Lerch, Robert J Zatorre, Alan C Evans, Isabelle PeretzAbstract:Congenital amusia (or Tone Deafness) is a lifelong disorder characterized by impairments in the perception and production of music. A previous voxel-based morphometry (VBM) study revealed that amusic individuals had reduced white matter in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) relative to musically intact controls (Hyde et al., 2006). However, this VBM study also revealed associated increases in gray matter in the same right IFG region of amusics. The objective of the present study was to better understand this morphological brain anomaly by way of cortical thickness measures that provide a more specific measure of cortical morphology relative to VBM. We found that amusic subjects (n = 21) have thicker cortex in the right IFG and the right auditory cortex relative to musically intact controls (n = 26). These cortical thickness differences suggest the presence of cortical malformations in the amusic brain, such as abnormal neuronal migration, that may have compromised the normal development of a right frontotemporal pathway.
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morphometry of the amusic brain a two site study
Brain, 2006Co-Authors: Krista L Hyde, Timothy D Griffiths, Jason P Lerch, Robert J Zatorre, Isabelle PeretzAbstract:Congenital amusia (or Tone Deafness) is a lifelong disability that prevents otherwise normal-functioning individuals from developing basic musical skills. Behavioural evidence indicates that congenital amusia is due to a severe deficit in pitch processing, but very little is known about the neural correlates of this condition. The objective of the present study was to investigate the structural neural correlates of congenital amusia. To this aim, voxel-based morphometry was used to detect brain anatomical differences in amusic individuals relative to musically intact controls, by analysing T1-weighted magnetic resonance images from two independent samples of subjects. The results were consistent across samples in highlighting a reduction in white matter concentration in the right inferior frontal gyrus of amusic individuals. This anatomical anomaly was correlated with performance on pitch-based musical tasks. The results are consistent with neuroimaging findings implicating right inferior frontal regions in musical pitch encoding and melodic pitch memory. We conceive the present results as a consequence of an impoverished communication in a right-hemisphere-based network involving the inferior frontal cortex and the right auditory cortex. Moreover, the data point to the integrity of white matter tracts in right frontal brain areas as being key in acquiring normal musical competence.
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Rhythm deficits in 'Tone Deafness'.
Brain and cognition, 2006Co-Authors: Jessica M. Foxton, Rachel K. Nandy, Timothy D GriffithsAbstract:Abstract It is commonly observed that ‘Tone deaf’ individuals are unable to hear the beat of a tune, yet deficits on simple timing tests have not been found. In this study, we investigated rhythm processing in nine individuals with congenital amusia (‘Tone Deafness’) and nine controls. Participants were presented with pairs of 5-note sequences, and were required to detect the presence of a lengthened interval. In different conditions the sound sequences were presented isochronously or in an integer-ratio rhythm, and these were either monotonic or varied randomly in pitch. It was found that the ‘Tone deaf’ participants exhibited inferior rhythm analysis for the sequences that varied in pitch compared to those that did not, whereas the controls obtained equivalent thresholds for these two conditions. These results suggest that the rhythm deficits in congenital amusia result from the pitch-variations in music.
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Characterization of deficits in pitch perception underlying Tone Deafness
Brain, 2004Co-Authors: Jessica M. Foxton, Isabelle Peretz, Jennifer L. Dean, Rosemary Gee, Timothy D GriffithsAbstract:Congenital amusia is a disorder characterized by life‐long, selective deficits in the perception of music. This study examined pitch‐perception abilities in a group of 10 adults with this disorder. Tests were administered that assessed fine‐grained pitch perception by determining thresholds both for the detection of continuous and segmented pitch changes, and for the recognition of pitch direction. Tests were also administered that assessed the perception of more complex pitch patterns, using pitch‐sequence comparison tasks. In addition, the perceptual organization of pitch was also examined, using stream segregation tasks that assess the assignment of sounds differing in pitch to one or two distinct perceptual sources. In comparison with 10 control subjects, it was found that the participants with congenital amusia exhibited deficits both at the level of detecting fine‐grained differences in pitch, and at the level of perceiving patterns in pitch. In contrast, no abnormalities were identified in the perceptual organization of pitch. The pitch deficits identified are able to account for the music perception difficulties in this disorder, and implicate deficient cortical processing.
Ronald R. Holden - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Musical difficulties are rare: a study of "Tone Deafness" among university students.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2005Co-Authors: Lola L. Cuddy, Laura-lee Balkwill, Isabelle Peretz, Ronald R. HoldenAbstract:: This study was concerned with self-reported “Tone Deafness” and its possible relationship to congenital amusia. Nearly 17% of over 2000 first-year psychology students at Queen's University self-reported Tone Deafness. Two hundred students were recruited from this pool of students, comprising 100 who reported Tone Deafness and 100 who reported that they were not Tone-deaf (NTD). The study contained two parts. In part 1, participants completed the six tests of the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA) developed by Peretz and collaborators. In part 2, participants completed an extensive questionnaire designed to elicit details about musical experiences, abilities, training, and interests. Twenty-eight questionnaire items allowing a quantitative response were subjected to factor analysis. Four orthogonal components emerged from the analysis. The components reflected self-report of (1) vocal production, (2) music instruction, (3) listening attitudes, and (4) childhood memories of musical environment. Results for each of the MBEA tests and composite scores for all tests were regressed on participants' factor scores. The best and significant predictors of the MBEA scores were factor I and factor II, followed by factor III. Factor scores accounted for a higher percentage of the variance in MBEA composite test results (27%) than the self-report of Tone Deafness alone (7%). The musical difficulties revealed by the MBEA test results for some participants warrant further attention and study. However, an encouraging conclusion from the MBEA results is that many individuals who consider themselves “Tone-deaf” may not, in fact, have perceptual difficulties, and these individuals should be supported in any of their efforts to proceed with music enjoyment and instruction.
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A Study of "Tone Deafness" among University Students
2005Co-Authors: Lola L. Cuddy, Laura-lee Balkwill, Isabelle Peretz, Ronald R. HoldenAbstract:This study was concerned with self-reported "Tone Deafness" and its possible relationship to congenital amusia. Nearly 17% of over 2000 first- year psychology students at Queen's University self-reported Tone Deafness. Two hundred students were recruited from this pool of students, comprising 100 who reported Tone Deafness and 100 who reported that they were not Tone- deaf (NTD). The study contained two parts. In part 1, participants completed the six tests of the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA) devel- oped by Peretz and collaborators. In part 2, participants completed an exten- sive questionnaire designed to elicit details about musical experiences, abilities, training, and interests. Twenty-eight questionnaire items allowing a quantita- tive response were subjected to factor analysis. Four orthogonal components emerged from the analysis. The components reflected self-report of (1) vocal production, (2) music instruction, (3) listening attitudes, and (4) childhood memories of musical environment. Results for each of the MBEA tests and composite scores for all tests were regressed on participants' factor scores. The best and significant predictors of the MBEA scores were factor I and factor II, followed by factor III. Factor scores accounted for a higher percentage of the variance in MBEA composite test results (27%) than the self-report of Tone Deafness alone (7%). The musical difficulties revealed by the MBEA test results for some participants warrant further attention and study. However, an encouraging conclusion from the MBEA results is that many individuals who consider themselves "Tone-deaf" may not, in fact, have perceptual difficulties, and these individuals should be supported in any of their efforts to proceed with music enjoyment and instruction.