Aftercooler

14,000,000 Leading Edge Experts on the ideXlab platform

Scan Science and Technology

Contact Leading Edge Experts & Companies

Scan Science and Technology

Contact Leading Edge Experts & Companies

The Experts below are selected from a list of 372 Experts worldwide ranked by ideXlab platform

Evangelos G. Giakoumis - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • 2004b) Parametric Study of Transient Turbocharged Diesel Engine Operation from the Second-Law Perspective
    2015
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis
    Abstract:

    Copyright © 2004 SAE International A computer analysis is developed for studying the energy and exergy performance of a turbocharged diesel engine, operating under transient load conditions. The model incorporates some novel features for the simulation of transient operation, such as detailed analysis of mechanical friction, separate consideration for the processes of each cylinder during a cycle (“multi-cylinder ” model) and mathematical modelling of the fuel pump. The model is validated against experimental data taken from a turbocharged diesel engine, located at the authors ’ laboratory, operated under transient load conditions. The availability terms for the diesel engine and its subsystems are analyzed, i.e. cylinder for both the open and closed parts of the cycle, inlet and exhaust manifolds, turbocharger and Aftercooler. The effect of various dynamic, thermodynamic and design parameters on the second-law transient performance of the engine, manifolds and turbocharger is investigated, i.e. magnitude of applied load, type of connected loading, turbocharger mass moment of inertia, exhaust manifold volume, cylinder wall temperature and Aftercooler effectiveness. Explicit diagrams are given to show how, after a ramp increase in load, each parameter examined affects the second-law properties of all subsystems such as cylinder, heat loss to the walls and exhaust gas availability as well as combustion, exhaust manifold and turbocharger irreversibilities. It is revealed from the analysis that the in-cylinder (mainly combustion) irreversibilities outweigh all other similar terms for every transient event but with decreasing magnitude when load increases, with the exhaust manifold processes being the second biggest irreversibilities producer with increasing magnitude when load increases. Design parameters such as cylinder wall insulation or Aftercooler effectiveness can have a notable effect on the second-law properties of the engine, despite the fact that their effect on the (thermo)dynamic response is minimal

  • Irreversibility production during transient operation of a turbocharged diesel engine
    International Journal of Vehicle Design, 2007
    Co-Authors: Evangelos G. Giakoumis, Eleftherios C. Andritsakis
    Abstract:

    A computer model has been developed for studying the first- and second-law balances of a turbocharged diesel engine under transient conditions. Special attention is paid to the identification and quantification of the irreversibilities of all processes and devices after a ramp increase in load. The model includes a detailed analysis of mechanical friction, a separate consideration for the processes in each cylinder during a cycle ('multi-cylinder' model) and a mathematical simulation of the fuel pump. Experimental data taken from a turbocharged diesel engine are used for the evaluation of the model's predictive capabilities. The contribution of combustion, manifolds, Aftercooler and turbocharger irreversibility production is analysed using detailed diagrams. It is revealed that transient in-cylinder irreversibilities develop in a different manner compared to the respective steady-state. Combustion has always a dominant contribution but the exhaust manifold irreversibilities cannot be ignored, whereas those attributed to the inlet manifold, turbocharger and Aftercooler are always of lesser importance.

  • Second-law analyses applied to internal combustion engines operation
    Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2006
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis
    Abstract:

    This paper surveys the publications available in the literature concerning the application of the second-law of thermodynamics to internal combustion engines. The availability (exergy) balance equations of the engine cylinder and subsystems are reviewed in detail providing also relations concerning the definition of state properties, chemical availability, flow and fuel availability, and dead state. Special attention is given to identification and quantification of second-law efficiencies and the irreversibilities of various processes and subsystems. The latter being particularly important since they are not identified in traditional first-law analysis. In identifying these processes and subsystems, the main differences between second- and first-law analyses are also highlighted. A detailed reference is made to the findings of various researchers in the field over the last 40 years concerning all types of internal combustion engines, i.e. spark ignition, compression ignition (direct or indirect injection), turbocharged or naturally aspirated, during steady-state and transient operation. All of the subsystems (compressor, Aftercooler, inlet manifold, cylinder, exhaust manifold, turbine), are also covered. Explicit comparative diagrams, as well as tabulation of typical energy and exergy balances, are presented. The survey extends to the various parametric studies conducted, including among other aspects the very interesting cases of low heat rejection engines, the use of alternative fuels and transient operation. Thus, the main differences between the results of second- and first-law analyses are highlighted and discussed.

  • operation
    2005
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis
    Abstract:

    This paper surveys the publications available in the literature concerning the application of the second-law of thermodynamics to internal combustion engines. The availability (exergy) balance equations of the engine cylinder and subsystems are reviewed in detail providing also relations concerning the definition of state properties, chemical availability, flow and fuel availability, and dead state. Special attention is given to identification and quantification of second-law efficiencies and the irreversibilities of various processes and subsystems. The latter being particularly important since they are not identified in traditional first-law analysis. In identifying these processes and subsystems, the main differences between second- and first-law analyses are also highlighted. A detailed reference is made to the findings of various researchers in the field over the last 40 years concerning all types of internal combustion engines, i.e. spark ignition, compression ignition (direct or indirect injection), turbocharged or naturally aspirated, during steady-state and transient operation. All of the subsystems (compressor, Aftercooler, inlet manifold, cylinder, exhaust manifold, turbine), are also covered. Explicit comparative diagrams, as well as tabulation of typical energy and exergy balances, are presented. The survey extends to the various parametric studies conducted, including among other aspects the very interesting cases of low heat rejection engines, the use of alternative fuels and transient operation. Thus, the main difference

  • Availability analysis of a turbocharged diesel engine operating under transient load conditions
    Energy, 2004
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis
    Abstract:

    A computer analysis is developed for studying the energy and availability performance of a turbocharged diesel engine, operating under transient load conditions. The model incorporates many novel features for the simulation of transient operation, such as detailed analysis of mechanical friction, separate consideration for the processes of each cylinder during a cycle (“multi-cylinder” model) and mathematical modeling of the fuel pump. This model has been validated against experimental data taken from a turbocharged diesel engine, located at the authors’ laboratory and operated under transient conditions. The availability terms for the diesel engine and its subsystems are analyzed, i.e. cylinder for both the open and closed parts of the cycle, inlet and exhaust manifolds, turbocharger and Aftercooler. The present analysis reveals, via multiple diagrams, how the availability properties of the diesel engine and its subsystems develop during the evolution of the engine cycles, assessing the importance of each property. In particular the irreversibilities term, which is absent from any analysis based solely on the first-law of thermodynamics, is given in detail as regards transient response as well as the rate and cumulative terms during a cycle, revealing the magnitude of contribution of all the subsystems to the total availability destruction.

Constantine D. Rakopoulos - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • 2004b) Parametric Study of Transient Turbocharged Diesel Engine Operation from the Second-Law Perspective
    2015
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis
    Abstract:

    Copyright © 2004 SAE International A computer analysis is developed for studying the energy and exergy performance of a turbocharged diesel engine, operating under transient load conditions. The model incorporates some novel features for the simulation of transient operation, such as detailed analysis of mechanical friction, separate consideration for the processes of each cylinder during a cycle (“multi-cylinder ” model) and mathematical modelling of the fuel pump. The model is validated against experimental data taken from a turbocharged diesel engine, located at the authors ’ laboratory, operated under transient load conditions. The availability terms for the diesel engine and its subsystems are analyzed, i.e. cylinder for both the open and closed parts of the cycle, inlet and exhaust manifolds, turbocharger and Aftercooler. The effect of various dynamic, thermodynamic and design parameters on the second-law transient performance of the engine, manifolds and turbocharger is investigated, i.e. magnitude of applied load, type of connected loading, turbocharger mass moment of inertia, exhaust manifold volume, cylinder wall temperature and Aftercooler effectiveness. Explicit diagrams are given to show how, after a ramp increase in load, each parameter examined affects the second-law properties of all subsystems such as cylinder, heat loss to the walls and exhaust gas availability as well as combustion, exhaust manifold and turbocharger irreversibilities. It is revealed from the analysis that the in-cylinder (mainly combustion) irreversibilities outweigh all other similar terms for every transient event but with decreasing magnitude when load increases, with the exhaust manifold processes being the second biggest irreversibilities producer with increasing magnitude when load increases. Design parameters such as cylinder wall insulation or Aftercooler effectiveness can have a notable effect on the second-law properties of the engine, despite the fact that their effect on the (thermo)dynamic response is minimal

  • Second-law analyses applied to internal combustion engines operation
    Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2006
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis
    Abstract:

    This paper surveys the publications available in the literature concerning the application of the second-law of thermodynamics to internal combustion engines. The availability (exergy) balance equations of the engine cylinder and subsystems are reviewed in detail providing also relations concerning the definition of state properties, chemical availability, flow and fuel availability, and dead state. Special attention is given to identification and quantification of second-law efficiencies and the irreversibilities of various processes and subsystems. The latter being particularly important since they are not identified in traditional first-law analysis. In identifying these processes and subsystems, the main differences between second- and first-law analyses are also highlighted. A detailed reference is made to the findings of various researchers in the field over the last 40 years concerning all types of internal combustion engines, i.e. spark ignition, compression ignition (direct or indirect injection), turbocharged or naturally aspirated, during steady-state and transient operation. All of the subsystems (compressor, Aftercooler, inlet manifold, cylinder, exhaust manifold, turbine), are also covered. Explicit comparative diagrams, as well as tabulation of typical energy and exergy balances, are presented. The survey extends to the various parametric studies conducted, including among other aspects the very interesting cases of low heat rejection engines, the use of alternative fuels and transient operation. Thus, the main differences between the results of second- and first-law analyses are highlighted and discussed.

  • operation
    2005
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis
    Abstract:

    This paper surveys the publications available in the literature concerning the application of the second-law of thermodynamics to internal combustion engines. The availability (exergy) balance equations of the engine cylinder and subsystems are reviewed in detail providing also relations concerning the definition of state properties, chemical availability, flow and fuel availability, and dead state. Special attention is given to identification and quantification of second-law efficiencies and the irreversibilities of various processes and subsystems. The latter being particularly important since they are not identified in traditional first-law analysis. In identifying these processes and subsystems, the main differences between second- and first-law analyses are also highlighted. A detailed reference is made to the findings of various researchers in the field over the last 40 years concerning all types of internal combustion engines, i.e. spark ignition, compression ignition (direct or indirect injection), turbocharged or naturally aspirated, during steady-state and transient operation. All of the subsystems (compressor, Aftercooler, inlet manifold, cylinder, exhaust manifold, turbine), are also covered. Explicit comparative diagrams, as well as tabulation of typical energy and exergy balances, are presented. The survey extends to the various parametric studies conducted, including among other aspects the very interesting cases of low heat rejection engines, the use of alternative fuels and transient operation. Thus, the main difference

  • Availability analysis of a turbocharged diesel engine operating under transient load conditions
    Energy, 2004
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis
    Abstract:

    A computer analysis is developed for studying the energy and availability performance of a turbocharged diesel engine, operating under transient load conditions. The model incorporates many novel features for the simulation of transient operation, such as detailed analysis of mechanical friction, separate consideration for the processes of each cylinder during a cycle (“multi-cylinder” model) and mathematical modeling of the fuel pump. This model has been validated against experimental data taken from a turbocharged diesel engine, located at the authors’ laboratory and operated under transient conditions. The availability terms for the diesel engine and its subsystems are analyzed, i.e. cylinder for both the open and closed parts of the cycle, inlet and exhaust manifolds, turbocharger and Aftercooler. The present analysis reveals, via multiple diagrams, how the availability properties of the diesel engine and its subsystems develop during the evolution of the engine cycles, assessing the importance of each property. In particular the irreversibilities term, which is absent from any analysis based solely on the first-law of thermodynamics, is given in detail as regards transient response as well as the rate and cumulative terms during a cycle, revealing the magnitude of contribution of all the subsystems to the total availability destruction.

  • The Effect of Various Dynamic, Thermodynamic and Design Parameters on the Performance of a Turbocharged Diesel Engine Operating under Transient Load Conditions
    SAE Technical Paper Series, 2004
    Co-Authors: Constantine D. Rakopoulos, Evangelos G. Giakoumis, Dimitrios T. Hountalas, Dimitrios C. Rakopoulos
    Abstract:

    Thermodynamic, dynamic and design parameters have a significant and often conflicting impact on the transient response of a compression ignition engine. Knowing the contribution of each parameter on transient operation could direct the designer to the appropriate measures for better engine performance. To this aim an explicit simulation program developed is used to study the performance of a turbocharged diesel engine operating under transient load conditions. The simulation developed, based on the filling and emptying approach, provides various innovations as follows: Detailed analysis of thermodynamic and dynamic differential equations, on a degree crank angle basis, accounting for the continuously changing nature of transient operation, analysis of transient mechanical friction, and also a detailed mathematical simulation of the fuel pump. Each equation in the model is solved separately for every cylinder of the 6-cylinder diesel engine considered. The model is validated against experimental data for various load changes. The effect of several dynamic, thermodynamic and design parameters is studied, i.e. load schedule (type, and duration of load applied), turbocharger mass moment of inertia, exhaust manifold volume and configuration, cylinder wall temperature, Aftercooler effectiveness as well as an interesting case of a malfunctioning fuel pump. Explicit diagrams are given to show how, after an increase in load, each parameter examined affects the engine speed response, as well as other properties of the engine and turbocharger such as fuel pump rack position, boost pressure and turbocharger speed. It is shown that certain parameters, such as the type of connected loading, the turbocharger inertia, a damaged fuel pump and the exhaust manifold volume, can have a significant effect on the engine and turbocharger transient performance. However others, such as the cylinder wall temperature, the Aftercooler effectiveness and the exhaust manifold configuration have a less important effect as regards transient response and final equilibrium conditions.

Gianfranco Rizzo - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Potentialities of CAES (Compressed Air Energy Storage) and V2G (Vehicle to Grid) in the Electricity Market Optimization and in the Integration of Renewable Resources
    2009
    Co-Authors: Ivan Arsie, Vincenzo Marano, Michael Moran, Gianfranco Rizzo
    Abstract:

    The paper deals with the simulation and optimization of a Hybrid Power Plant (HPP) consisting of a wind turbine coupled with Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES). According with the proposed plant lay-out, the wind power surplus is used to drive a multi-stage compressor to store compressed air in an air reservoir, while, in case of power demand, the compressed air is heated in multiple expansion stages using the stored heat and conventional thermal sources. Hybrid power plants can offer significant benefits in terms of flexibility in matching a fluctuating power demand, particularly when renewable sources, characterized by high and often unpredictable variability, are utilized. The possible advantages in terms of energy and cost savings with respect to other solutions must be carefully assessed, critically depending on performance and efficiencies of each sub-system, most of them operating in transient and off-design conditions. To this purpose, a thermodynamic model composed of several sub-systems describing wind turbine, multi-stage compressor, intercooler, Aftercooler, heat recovery system, compressed air storage and turbine has been developed in Matlab/Simulink®. Operational and investment costs have been estimated, aiming to compare several plant scenarios with respect to the main control and design variables, evidencing economic and energetic performance and environmental impact

  • A MODEL OF A HYBRID POWER PLANT WITH WIND TURBINES AND COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE
    ASME 2005 Power Conference, 2005
    Co-Authors: Ivan Arsie, Vincenzo Marano, G. Nappi, Gianfranco Rizzo
    Abstract:

    After a general overview of Hybrid Power Plants (HPP) and Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), the authors present a thermo-economic model for the simulation and optimization of a HPP consisting of a wind turbine coupled with CAES. In the proposed scheme, during periods of excess power production, atmospheric air is compressed in a multistage compressor and cooled; when there is power demand, the compressed air is heated in multiple expansion stages using the stored heat and conventional thermal sources. Such plants can offer significant benefits in terms of flexibility in matching a fluctuating power demand, particularly when renewable sources, characterized by high and often unpredictable variability, are utilized. The possible advantages in terms of energy and cost savings with respect to other solutions must be carefully assessed, critically depending on performance and efficiencies of each sub-system, most of them operating in transient and off-design conditions. To this purpose, a thermodynamic model composed of several sub-systems describing wind turbine, multi-stage compressor, intercooler, Aftercooler, heat recovery system, compressed air storage and turbine has been developed in Matlab/Simulink® environment. In the paper, several scenarios are compared by simulation and optimization analysis and a parametric study of the plant performance with respect to the main design variables is presented.

  • Thermo-economical analysis of a wind power plant with compressed air energy storage
    2005
    Co-Authors: Ivan Arsie, Vincenzo Marano, Gianfranco Rizzo
    Abstract:

    The paper deals with the simulation and optimization of a Hybrid Power Plant (HPP) consisting of a wind turbine coupled with Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES). According with the proposed plant lay-out, the wind power surplus is used to drive a multi-stage compressor to store compressed air in an air reservoir, while, in case of power demand, the compressed air is heated in multiple expansion stages using the stored heat and conventional thermal sources. Hybrid power plants can offer significant benefits in terms of flexibility in matching a fluctuating power demand, particularly when renewable sources, characterized by high and often unpredictable variability, are utilized. The possible advantages in terms of energy and cost savings with respect to other solutions must be carefully assessed, critically depending on performance and efficiencies of each sub-system, most of them operating in transient and off-design conditions. To this purpose, a thermodynamic model composed of several sub-systems describing wind turbine, multi-stage compressor, intercooler, Aftercooler, heat recovery system, compressed air storage and turbine has been developed in Matlab/Simulink®. Operational and investment costs have been estimated, aiming to compare several plant scenarios with respect to the main control and design variables, evidencing economic and energetic performance and environmental impact

A. Veen - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Efficient EGR Technology for Future HD Diesel Engine Emission Targets
    SAE transactions, 1999
    Co-Authors: Rsg Rik Baert, Derek De Beckman, A. Veen
    Abstract:

    Different systems for achieving short-route cooled EGR on turbocharged and aftercooled heavy-duty diesel engines have been tested on a 12 litre 315 kW engine with 4 valves per cylinder and an electronically controlled unit pump fuel injection system. In all of these systems the exhaust gas was tapped off before the turbine, cooled and mixed with the intake air after the compressor and Aftercooler. The systems differed (mainly) in the method used to set up a positive pressure difference across the EGR circuit. This was done either by the use of an exhaust back pressure valve in the exhaust, or by using a turbocharger with variable nozzle turbine (VNT) geometry, or by combining such a VNT turbocharger with a venturi-mixer that was positioned in the intake manifold such as to provide extra suction power to the EGR gas. The emissions behaviour and efficiency with these different EGR systems were tested in a number of engine working points, including key points of the AVL 8-mode US FTP cycle simulation. The results indicate that for achieving 1998 emission levels, a VNT only would be the most efficient solution. For achieving 2004 emission levels, combining the VNT with a venturi-mixer could give a further fuel consumption benefit. Particulate matter emisisons will however be unacceptable, making the use of additional particulate reducing technology necessary. A measure of venturi-mixer effienciency is proposed and a new, compact and efficient venturi-mixer design is presented. Results from flow tests are given and compared with results from CFD calculations.

  • EGR technology for lowest emissions
    1996
    Co-Authors: Rsg Rik Baert, D.e. Beckman, A. Veen
    Abstract:

    An EGR system for turbocharged and aftercooled HD diesel engines has been demonstrated on a 12 litre 315 kW engine with 4 valves per cylinder and a high pressure injection system. In this system exhaust gas is tapped off before the turbine, run through a cooler and mixed with the intake air after the compressor and Aftercooler. The EGR system combines a novel, very efficient venturi-mixer unit with a VGT turbocharger. The venturi-mixer is positioned between the Aftercooler and the intake manifold and provide such a suction power to the EGR gas. A first report showed that optimization of EGR quantity and injection timing enabled emission levels in the ECE R49 test below 3 g/kW h for NOx and around 0.10 g/kWh for particulates without a substantial increase in fuel consumption. Since then tests have continued with different fuels and with different EGR hardware. This paper gives further and more detailed information on the venturi-mixer characteristics and on how its interaction with the turbocharger influences engine operation and EGR potential. It is also shown that especially with some oxygenated fuels increase of particulate emissions with EGR could be minimal.

Rsg Rik Baert - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Efficient EGR Technology for Future HD Diesel Engine Emission Targets
    SAE transactions, 1999
    Co-Authors: Rsg Rik Baert, Derek De Beckman, A. Veen
    Abstract:

    Different systems for achieving short-route cooled EGR on turbocharged and aftercooled heavy-duty diesel engines have been tested on a 12 litre 315 kW engine with 4 valves per cylinder and an electronically controlled unit pump fuel injection system. In all of these systems the exhaust gas was tapped off before the turbine, cooled and mixed with the intake air after the compressor and Aftercooler. The systems differed (mainly) in the method used to set up a positive pressure difference across the EGR circuit. This was done either by the use of an exhaust back pressure valve in the exhaust, or by using a turbocharger with variable nozzle turbine (VNT) geometry, or by combining such a VNT turbocharger with a venturi-mixer that was positioned in the intake manifold such as to provide extra suction power to the EGR gas. The emissions behaviour and efficiency with these different EGR systems were tested in a number of engine working points, including key points of the AVL 8-mode US FTP cycle simulation. The results indicate that for achieving 1998 emission levels, a VNT only would be the most efficient solution. For achieving 2004 emission levels, combining the VNT with a venturi-mixer could give a further fuel consumption benefit. Particulate matter emisisons will however be unacceptable, making the use of additional particulate reducing technology necessary. A measure of venturi-mixer effienciency is proposed and a new, compact and efficient venturi-mixer design is presented. Results from flow tests are given and compared with results from CFD calculations.

  • New EGR technology retains HD diesel economy with 21st century emissions
    SAE Technical Paper Series, 1996
    Co-Authors: Rsg Rik Baert, Derek De Beckman, Ruud P Verbeek
    Abstract:

    An EGR system for turbocharged (and aftercooled) heavy-duty diesel engines have been demonstrated on a 12 litre 315 kW engine with 4 valves per cyclinder head and high pressure injection system. In the EGR system exhaust gas is tapped of before the turbine, run through a cooler and mixed with the intake air after the compressor and Aftercooler. This is done with a minimum of disturbance to the pressure balance across the engine by combining a very efficient venturi-mixer unit with a VGT turbocharger. The venturi-mixer is positioned between the Aftercooler and the intake manifold and provides a suction power to the EGR gas. Optimization of EGR quantity and injection timing reduced the NOx emission over the European 13-mode test by almost 60% to 2.4 g/kWh. Particulate emissions were 0.107 g/kWh and the BSFC penalty 2,5%. Initial tests demonstrate acceptable transient behaviour when using a dedicated control strategy. The expected EURO4 emission requirements are 3 g/kWh NOx and 0.10 g/kWh particulates (approximate time of implementation is 2004).

  • EGR technology for lowest emissions
    1996
    Co-Authors: Rsg Rik Baert, D.e. Beckman, A. Veen
    Abstract:

    An EGR system for turbocharged and aftercooled HD diesel engines has been demonstrated on a 12 litre 315 kW engine with 4 valves per cylinder and a high pressure injection system. In this system exhaust gas is tapped off before the turbine, run through a cooler and mixed with the intake air after the compressor and Aftercooler. The EGR system combines a novel, very efficient venturi-mixer unit with a VGT turbocharger. The venturi-mixer is positioned between the Aftercooler and the intake manifold and provide such a suction power to the EGR gas. A first report showed that optimization of EGR quantity and injection timing enabled emission levels in the ECE R49 test below 3 g/kW h for NOx and around 0.10 g/kWh for particulates without a substantial increase in fuel consumption. Since then tests have continued with different fuels and with different EGR hardware. This paper gives further and more detailed information on the venturi-mixer characteristics and on how its interaction with the turbocharger influences engine operation and EGR potential. It is also shown that especially with some oxygenated fuels increase of particulate emissions with EGR could be minimal.