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Lee F Skerratt - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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rapid response to evaluate the presence of Amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and ranavirus in wild Amphibian populations in madagascar
PLOS ONE, 2015Co-Authors: Jonathan E Kolby, Caren S. Goldberg, Allan P. Pessier, Kristine M Smith, Sara D Ramirez, Falitiana C E Rabemananjara, Lee Berger, Lee F SkerrattAbstract:We performed a rapid response investigation to evaluate the presence and distribution of Amphibian pathogens in Madagascar following our identification of Amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) and ranavirus in commercially exported Amphibians. This targeted risk-based field surveillance program was conducted from February to April 2014 encompassing 12 regions and 47 survey sites. We simultaneously collected Amphibian and environmental samples to increase survey sensitivity and performed sampling both in wilderness areas and commercial Amphibian trade facilities. Bd was not detected in any of 508 Amphibian skin swabs or 68 water filter samples, suggesting pathogen prevalence was below 0.8%, with 95% confidence during our visit. Ranavirus was detected in 5 of 97 Amphibians, including one adult Mantidactylus cowanii and three unidentified larvae from Ranomafana National Park, and one adult Mantidactylus mocquardi from Ankaratra. Ranavirus was also detected in water samples collected from two commercial Amphibian export facilities. We also provide the first report of an Amphibian mass-mortality event observed in wild Amphibians in Madagascar. Although neither Bd nor ranavirus appeared widespread in Madagascar during this investigation, additional health surveys are required to disentangle potential seasonal variations in pathogen abundance and detectability from actual changes in pathogen distribution and rates of spread. Accordingly, our results should be conservatively interpreted until a comparable survey effort during winter months has been performed. It is imperative that biosecurity practices be immediately adopted to limit the unintentional increased spread of disease through the movement of contaminated equipment or direct disposal of contaminated material from wildlife trade facilities. The presence of potentially introduced strains of ranaviruses suggests that Madagascar's reptile species might also be threatened by disease. Standardized population monitoring of key Amphibian and reptile species should be established with urgency to enable early detection of potential impacts of disease emergence in this global biodiversity hotspot.
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First evidence of Amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) and ranavirus in Hong Kong Amphibian trade.
PloS one, 2014Co-Authors: Jonathan E Kolby, Allan P. Pessier, Kristine M Smith, Lee Berger, William B. Karesh, Asa Preston, Lee F SkerrattAbstract:The emerging infectious Amphibian diseases caused by Amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) and ranaviruses are responsible for global Amphibian population declines and extinctions. Although likely to have been spread by a variety of activities, transcontinental dispersal appears closely associated with the international trade in live Amphibians. The territory of Hong Kong reports frequent, high volume trade in Amphibians, and yet the presence of Bd and ranavirus have not previously been detected in either traded or free-ranging Amphibians. In 2012, a prospective surveillance project was conducted to investigate the presence of these pathogens in commercial shipments of live Amphibians exported from Hong Kong International Airport. Analysis of skin (Bd) and cloacal (ranavirus) swabs by quantitative PCR detected pathogen presence in 31/265 (11.7%) and in 105/185 (56.8%) of Amphibians, respectively. In addition, the water in which animals were transported tested positive for Bd, demonstrating the risk of pathogen pollution by the disposal of untreated wastewater. It is uncertain whether Bd and ranavirus remain contained within Hong Kong’s trade sector, or if native Amphibians have already been exposed. Rapid response efforts are now urgently needed to determine current pathogen distribution in Hong Kong, evaluate potential trade-associated exposure to free-ranging Amphibians, and identify opportunities to prevent disease establishment.
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hygiene protocols for the control of diseases in australian frogs report for the australian government department of sustainability environment water population and communities
2011Co-Authors: Kris A Murray, Lee Berger, Lee F Skerratt, Gerry Marantelli, David J Hunter, Michael Mahony, Harry B HinesAbstract:[Extract] Amphibians have declined globally. In the first global Amphibian assessment, at least 43% of Amphibian species with sufficient data were found to have declined in recent decades, 34 species were extinct and a further 88 were possibly extinct (Stuart et al. 2004). In 2010, approximately 30% of Amphibians were threatened globally.
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guidelines for minimising disease risks associated with captive breeding raising and restocking programs for australian frogs a report for the australian government department of sustainability environment water population and communities
2011Co-Authors: Kris A Murray, Lee Berger, Lee F Skerratt, Gerry Marantelli, David J Hunter, Michael Mahony, Harry B HinesAbstract:Amphibians have declined globally. In the first global Amphibian assessment, at least 43% of Amphibian species with sufficient data were found to have declined in recent decades, 34 species have become extinct and a further 88 are possibly extinct (Stuart et al. 2004). In 2010, approximately 30% of Amphibians were threatened globally.
Andrew R Blaustein - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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the complexity of Amphibian population declines understanding the role of cofactors in driving Amphibian losses
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2011Co-Authors: Andrew R Blaustein, Pieter T J Johnson, Rick A Relyea, Julia C Buck, Stephanie S Gervasi, Lee B KatsAbstract:Population losses and extinctions of species are occurring at unprecedented rates, as exemplified by declines and extinctions of Amphibians worldwide. However, studies of Amphibian population declines generally do not address the complexity of the phenomenon or its implications for ecological communities, focusing instead on single factors affecting particular Amphibian species. We argue that the causes for Amphibian population declines are complex; may differ among species, populations, and life stages within a population; and are context dependent with multiple stressors interacting to drive declines. Because Amphibians are key components of communities, we emphasize the importance of investigating Amphibian declines at the community level. Selection pressures over evolutionary time have molded Amphibian life history characteristics, such that they may remain static even in the face of strong, recent human-induced selection pressures.
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direct and indirect effects of climate change on Amphibian populations
Diversity, 2010Co-Authors: Andrew R Blaustein, Betsy A Bancroft, Susan C Walls, Joshua J Lawler, Catherine L Searle, Stephanie S GervasiAbstract:As part of an overall decline in biodiversity, populations of many organisms are declining and species are being lost at unprecedented rates around the world. This includes many populations and species of Amphibians. Although numerous factors are affecting Amphibian populations, we show potential direct and indirect effects of climate change on Amphibians at the individual, population and community level. Shifts in Amphibian ranges are predicted. Changes in climate may affect survival, growth, reproduction and dispersal capabilities. Moreover, climate change can alter Amphibian habitats including vegetation, soil, and hydrology. Climate change can influence food availability, predator-prey relationships and competitive interactions which can alter community structure. Climate change can also alter pathogen-host dynamics and greatly influence how diseases are manifested. Changes in climate can interact with other stressors such as UV-B radiation and contaminants. The interactions among all these factors are complex and are probably driving some Amphibian population declines and extinctions.
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effects of the pathogenic water mold saprolegnia ferax on survival of Amphibian larvae
Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 2009Co-Authors: John M Romansic, Kristin A Diez, Elise M Higashi, James E Johnson, Andrew R BlausteinAbstract:Infectious diseases are a significant threat to worldwide biodiversity. Amphibian declines, a significant part of current biodiversity losses, are in many cases associated with infectious disease. Water molds are one group of pathogens affecting Amphibians on a worldwide basis. Although water molds have been studied extensively for their effects on host embryos, little information is available about how they affect post-embryonic Amphibians. We tested the effects of one species of water mold, Saprolegnia ferax, in a comparative study of larvae of 4 Amphibian species: Pseudacris regilla (Pacific treefrog), Rana cascadae (Cascades frog), Ambystoma macrodactylum (long-toed salamander), and R. aurora (red-legged frog). S. ferax can kill Amphibians at the embryonic and juvenile life history stages, depending on the Amphibian species. In the present study, a 1 wk exposure to S. ferax killed P. regilla larvae and a 2 wk exposure killed R. aurora larvae. Larvae of the other host species were unaffected after 1 wk of exposure to S. ferax. Our results suggest that S. ferax can kill Amphibian larvae and further suggest that evaluation of how pathogens affect Amphibians at the population level requires investigation at various life stages.
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a meta analysis of the effects of ultraviolet b radiation and its synergistic interactions with ph contaminants and disease on Amphibian survival
Conservation Biology, 2008Co-Authors: Betsy A Bancroft, Nick J Baker, Andrew R BlausteinAbstract:Human alterations to natural systems have resulted in a loss of biological diversity around the world. Amphibian population losses have been more severe than those of birds and mammals. Amphibian population declines are likely due to many factors including habitat loss, disease, contaminants, introduced species and ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation. The effect of UVB, however, varies widely among species and can vary within populations of the same species or at different life-history stages. This variation has often led to opposing conclusions about how UVB affects Amphibians. We used meta-analysis techniques to explore the overall effects of UVB radiation on survival in Amphibians. We also used recently developed factorial meta-analytic techniques to quantify potential interactions between UVB radiation and other stressors on Amphibians. Ultraviolet-B radiation reduced survival of Amphibians by 1.9-fold compared with shielded controls. Larvae were more susceptible to damage from UVB radiation compared with embryos, and salamanders were more susceptible compared with frogs and toads. Furthermore, UVB radiation interacted synergistically with other environmental stressors and resulted in greater than additive effects on survival when 2 stressors were present. Our results suggest that UVB radiation is an important stressor in Amphibians, particularly in light of potential synergisms between UVB and other stressors in Amphibian habitats.
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synergism between uv b radiation and a pathogen magnifies Amphibian embryo mortality in nature
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 1995Co-Authors: Joseph M Kiesecker, Andrew R BlausteinAbstract:Previous research has shown that Amphibians have differential sensitivity to ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation. In some species, ambient levels of UV-B radiation cause embryonic mortality in nature. The detrimental effects of UV-B alone or with other agents may ultimately affect Amphibians at the population level. Here, we experimentally demonstrate a synergistic effect between UV-B radiation and a pathogenic fungus in the field that increases the mortality of Amphibian embryos compared with either factor alone. Studies investigating single factors for causes of Amphibian egg mortality or population declines may not reveal the complex factors involved in declines.
Valerie J Mckenzie - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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the Amphibian skin associated microbiome across species space and life history stages
Molecular Ecology, 2014Co-Authors: Jordan G Kueneman, Douglas C Woodhams, Laura Wegener Parfrey, Holly M Archer, Rob Knight, Valerie J MckenzieAbstract:Skin-associated bacteria of Amphibians are increasingly recognized for their role in defence against pathogens, yet we have little understanding of their basic ecology. Here, we use high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing to examine the host and environmental influences on the skin microbiota of the cohabiting Amphibian species Anaxyrus boreas, Pseudacris regilla, Taricha torosa and Lithobates catesbeianus from the Central Valley in California. We also studied populations of Rana cascadae over a large geographic range in the Klamath Mountain range of Northern California, and across developmental stages within a single site. Dominant bacterial phylotypes on Amphibian skin included taxa from Bacteroidetes, Gammaproteobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Firmicutes, Sphingobacteria and Actinobacteria. Amphibian species identity was the strongest predictor of microbial community composition. Secondarily, within a given Amphibian species, wetland site explained significant variation. Amphibian-associated microbiota differed systematically from microbial assemblages in their environments. Rana cascadae tadpoles have skin bacterial communities distinct from postmetamorphic conspecifics, indicating a strong developmental shift in the skin microbes following metamorphosis. Establishing patterns observed in the skin microbiota of wild Amphibians and environmental factors that underlie them is necessary to understand skin symbiont community assembly, and ultimately, the role skin microbiota play in the extended host phenotype including disease resistance.
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the Amphibian skin associated microbiome across species space and life history stages
Molecular Ecology, 2014Co-Authors: Jordan G Kueneman, Douglas C Woodhams, Laura Wegener Parfrey, Holly M Archer, Rob Knight, Valerie J MckenzieAbstract:Skin-associated bacteria of Amphibians are increasingly recognized for their role in defence against pathogens, yet we have little understanding of their basic ecology. Here, we use high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing to examine the host and environmental influences on the skin microbiota of the cohabiting Amphibian species Anaxyrus boreas, Pseudacris regilla, Taricha torosa and Lithobates catesbeianus from the Central Valley in California. We also studied populations of Rana cascadae over a large geographic range in the Klamath Mountain range of Northern California, and across developmental stages within a single site. Dominant bacterial phylotypes on Amphibian skin included taxa from Bacteroidetes, Gammaproteobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Firmicutes, Sphingobacteria and Actinobacteria. Amphibian species identity was the strongest predictor of microbial community composition. Secondarily, within a given Amphibian species, wetland site explained significant variation. Amphibian-associated microbiota differed systematically from microbial assemblages in their environments. Rana cascadae tadpoles have skin bacterial communities distinct from postmetamorphic conspecifics, indicating a strong developmental shift in the skin microbes following metamorphosis. Establishing patterns observed in the skin microbiota of wild Amphibians and environmental factors that underlie them is necessary to understand skin symbiont community assembly, and ultimately, the role skin microbiota play in the extended host phenotype including disease resistance.
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chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has nonAmphibian hosts and releases chemicals that cause pathology in the absence of infection
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2013Co-Authors: Taegan A Mcmahon, Pieter T J Johnson, Valerie J Mckenzie, Laura A Brannelly, Matthew W H Chatfield, Maxwell B Joseph, Corinne L Richardszawacki, Matthew D Venesky, Jason R RohrAbstract:Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a pathogenic chytrid fungus implicated in worldwide Amphibian declines, is considered an Amphibian specialist. Identification of nonAmphibian hosts could help explain the virulence, heterogeneous distribution, variable rates of spread, and persistence of B. dendrobatidis in freshwater ecosystems even after Amphibian extirpations. Here, we test whether mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) and crayfish (Procambarus spp. and Orconectes virilis), which are syntopic with many Amphibian species, are possible hosts for B. dendrobatidis. Field surveys in Louisiana and Colorado revealed that zoosporangia occur within crayfish gastrointestinal tracts, that B. dendrobatidis prevalence in crayfish was up to 29%, and that crayfish presence in Colorado wetlands was a positive predictor of B. dendrobatidis infections in cooccurring Amphibians. In experiments, crayfish, but not mosquitofish, became infected with B. dendrobatidis, maintained the infection for at least 12 wk, and transmitted B. dendrobatidis to Amphibians. Exposure to water that previously held B. dendrobatidis also caused significant crayfish mortality and gill recession. These results indicate that there are nonAmphibian hosts for B. dendrobatidis and suggest that B. dendrobatidis releases a chemical that can cause host pathology, even in the absence of infection. Managing these biological reservoirs for B. dendrobatidis and identifying this chemical might provide new hope for imperiled Amphibians.
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effects of environmental change on helminth infections in Amphibians exploring the emergence of ribeiroia and echinostoma infections in north america
2009Co-Authors: Pieter T J Johnson, Valerie J MckenzieAbstract:Amphibians have long served as model organisms for studying animal physiology, vertebrate anatomy, and host–parasite interactions. Recently, however, the occurrence of precipitous declines in many Amphibian populations and of severe limb malformations in others has catalyzed renewed efforts to understand the effects of parasites on Amphibians. In this brief review, we examine the importance of two groups of trematodes that utilize Amphibians as intermediate hosts: species in the genus Ribeiroia and the broader “echinostome” group which collectively includes the genera Echinostoma and Echinoparyphium. For each, we specifically explore the pathology resulting from infection, whether the parasite has recently increased in abundance or geographic range, and the biotic and abiotic factors likely to influence infection. Both groups of parasites can induce significant pathology in Amphibian hosts. Exposure to Ribeiroia cercariae causes substantial increases in mortality and limb malformations in larval Amphibians. These malformations, which include missing, malformed and extra limbs, may further reduce survival in Amphibians; malformations are extremely rare in adult frogs, even following years in which they are abundant (>50%) among juvenile frogs. Similarly, the echinostomes, which colonize the kidneys of Amphibians, can reduce the survival and increase the incidence of edema and renal failure, particularly in laboratory experiments. Recent surveys of National Wildlife Refuges across the USA suggest that both groups of parasites are widespread and sometimes extremely abundant (~1,000 metacercariae per frog). Infections appear to be most common along major rivers and bird flyways in the northern half of the country. While limited evidence suggests a recent increase in Amphibian malformations and Ribeiroia infection, the paucity of available historical data precludes a definitive assessment of whether either parasite group has recently emerged. We discuss future approaches to this question and explore contemporary ecological changes known or hypothesized to influence patterns of infection, including changes in land use, increases in nutrient and pesticide runoff, decreases in community diversity and shifts in climate. Considering the documented pathologies of each parasite group, their widespread and often abundant infection patterns, and the ongoing declines observed in Amphibian populations, we emphasize the urgent need for further study of Ribeiroia and echinostome infections in Amphibians.
Lee Berger - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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rapid response to evaluate the presence of Amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and ranavirus in wild Amphibian populations in madagascar
PLOS ONE, 2015Co-Authors: Jonathan E Kolby, Caren S. Goldberg, Allan P. Pessier, Kristine M Smith, Sara D Ramirez, Falitiana C E Rabemananjara, Lee Berger, Lee F SkerrattAbstract:We performed a rapid response investigation to evaluate the presence and distribution of Amphibian pathogens in Madagascar following our identification of Amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) and ranavirus in commercially exported Amphibians. This targeted risk-based field surveillance program was conducted from February to April 2014 encompassing 12 regions and 47 survey sites. We simultaneously collected Amphibian and environmental samples to increase survey sensitivity and performed sampling both in wilderness areas and commercial Amphibian trade facilities. Bd was not detected in any of 508 Amphibian skin swabs or 68 water filter samples, suggesting pathogen prevalence was below 0.8%, with 95% confidence during our visit. Ranavirus was detected in 5 of 97 Amphibians, including one adult Mantidactylus cowanii and three unidentified larvae from Ranomafana National Park, and one adult Mantidactylus mocquardi from Ankaratra. Ranavirus was also detected in water samples collected from two commercial Amphibian export facilities. We also provide the first report of an Amphibian mass-mortality event observed in wild Amphibians in Madagascar. Although neither Bd nor ranavirus appeared widespread in Madagascar during this investigation, additional health surveys are required to disentangle potential seasonal variations in pathogen abundance and detectability from actual changes in pathogen distribution and rates of spread. Accordingly, our results should be conservatively interpreted until a comparable survey effort during winter months has been performed. It is imperative that biosecurity practices be immediately adopted to limit the unintentional increased spread of disease through the movement of contaminated equipment or direct disposal of contaminated material from wildlife trade facilities. The presence of potentially introduced strains of ranaviruses suggests that Madagascar's reptile species might also be threatened by disease. Standardized population monitoring of key Amphibian and reptile species should be established with urgency to enable early detection of potential impacts of disease emergence in this global biodiversity hotspot.
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First evidence of Amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) and ranavirus in Hong Kong Amphibian trade.
PloS one, 2014Co-Authors: Jonathan E Kolby, Allan P. Pessier, Kristine M Smith, Lee Berger, William B. Karesh, Asa Preston, Lee F SkerrattAbstract:The emerging infectious Amphibian diseases caused by Amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) and ranaviruses are responsible for global Amphibian population declines and extinctions. Although likely to have been spread by a variety of activities, transcontinental dispersal appears closely associated with the international trade in live Amphibians. The territory of Hong Kong reports frequent, high volume trade in Amphibians, and yet the presence of Bd and ranavirus have not previously been detected in either traded or free-ranging Amphibians. In 2012, a prospective surveillance project was conducted to investigate the presence of these pathogens in commercial shipments of live Amphibians exported from Hong Kong International Airport. Analysis of skin (Bd) and cloacal (ranavirus) swabs by quantitative PCR detected pathogen presence in 31/265 (11.7%) and in 105/185 (56.8%) of Amphibians, respectively. In addition, the water in which animals were transported tested positive for Bd, demonstrating the risk of pathogen pollution by the disposal of untreated wastewater. It is uncertain whether Bd and ranavirus remain contained within Hong Kong’s trade sector, or if native Amphibians have already been exposed. Rapid response efforts are now urgently needed to determine current pathogen distribution in Hong Kong, evaluate potential trade-associated exposure to free-ranging Amphibians, and identify opportunities to prevent disease establishment.
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hygiene protocols for the control of diseases in australian frogs report for the australian government department of sustainability environment water population and communities
2011Co-Authors: Kris A Murray, Lee Berger, Lee F Skerratt, Gerry Marantelli, David J Hunter, Michael Mahony, Harry B HinesAbstract:[Extract] Amphibians have declined globally. In the first global Amphibian assessment, at least 43% of Amphibian species with sufficient data were found to have declined in recent decades, 34 species were extinct and a further 88 were possibly extinct (Stuart et al. 2004). In 2010, approximately 30% of Amphibians were threatened globally.
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guidelines for minimising disease risks associated with captive breeding raising and restocking programs for australian frogs a report for the australian government department of sustainability environment water population and communities
2011Co-Authors: Kris A Murray, Lee Berger, Lee F Skerratt, Gerry Marantelli, David J Hunter, Michael Mahony, Harry B HinesAbstract:Amphibians have declined globally. In the first global Amphibian assessment, at least 43% of Amphibian species with sufficient data were found to have declined in recent decades, 34 species have become extinct and a further 88 are possibly extinct (Stuart et al. 2004). In 2010, approximately 30% of Amphibians were threatened globally.
Trenton W. J. Garner - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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first evidence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in china discovery of chytridiomycosis in introduced american bullfrogs and native Amphibians in the yunnan province china
Ecohealth, 2010Co-Authors: Trenton W. J. Garner, Yiming LiAbstract:Although the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), the etiological agent of Amphibian chytridiomycosis, has been implicated in mass mortality and population declines on several continents around the world, there have been no reports on the presence of Bd infections in Amphibians in China. We employed quantitative PCR and histological techniques to investigate the presence of Bd in introduced North American bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) (referred to hereafter as bullfrog) and native Amphibians in bullfrog-invaded areas of the Yunnan Province, China. A total of 259 samples at five wild sites were collected between June and September in 2007 and 2008, including bullfrogs and four native Amphibian species (Rana pleuraden, Rana chaochiaoensis, Odorrana andersonii, and Bombina maxima). In addition, 37 samples of adult bullfrogs were obtained from a food market. Bd infections were discovered in bullfrogs and three native Amphibian species from all of the surveyed sites. Of the 39 Bd-positive samples, 35 were from wild-caught bullfrog tadpoles, postmetamorphic bullfrogs, R. pleuraden, R. chaochiaoensis, and O. andersonii, and four were from adult bullfrogs from the market. Our results provide the first evidence of the presence of Bd in Chinese Amphibians, suggesting that native Amphibian diversity in China is at risk from Bd. There is an urgent need to monitor the distribution of Bd in Amphibians in China and understand the susceptibility of native Amphibian species to chytridiomycosis. Strict regulations on the transportation of bullfrogs and the breeding of bullfrogs in markets and farms should be drafted in order to stop the spread of Bd by bullfrogs.
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global emergence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Amphibian chytridiomycosis in space time and host
Annual Review of Microbiology, 2009Co-Authors: Matthew C Fisher, Trenton W. J. Garner, Susan F. WalkerAbstract:Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd ) is a chytrid fungus that causes chytridiomycosis in Amphibians. Only named in 1999, Bd is a proximate driver of declines in global Amphibian biodiversity. The pathogen infects over 350 species of Amphibians and is found on all continents except Antarctica. However, the processes that have led to the global distribution of Bd and the occurrence of chytridiomycosis remain unclear. This review explores the molecular, epidemiological, and ecological evidence that Bd evolved from an endemic ancestral lineage to achieve global prominence via anthropogenically mediated spread. We then consider the major host and pathogen factors that have led to the occurrence of chytridiomycosis in Amphibian species, populations, and communities.
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the relationship between the emergence of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis the international trade in Amphibians and introduced Amphibian species
Fungal Biology Reviews, 2007Co-Authors: Matthew C Fisher, Trenton W. J. GarnerAbstract:Abstract Chytridiomycosis is an emerging infectious disease of Amphibians caused by the chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis . The disease has been associated with global Amphibian declines and species extinctions, however the principle drivers that underly the emergence of chytridiomycosis remain unclear. Current evidence suggests that the world trade in Amphibians is implicated in the emergence of chytridiomycosis. Here, we review the evidence that the Amphibian trade is driving the emergence of chytridiomycosis by (1) spreading infected animals worldwide, (2) introducing non-native infected animals into naive populations and (3) amplifying infection of Amphibians by co-housing, followed by untreated discharge of infectious zoospores into water supplies. We conclude that the evidence that the Amphibian trade is contributing to the spread of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is strong, and that specific actions are necessary to prevent the introduction of the pathogen into thus-far uninfected areas. Specifically, we recommend the development of national risk-abatement plans, focused on firstly preventing introduction of Bd into disease free areas, and secondly, decreasing the impact of the disease on populations that are currently infected.