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Donald R Strong - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Phoresy of the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis marelatus by a non-host organism, the isopod Porcellio scaber.
Journal of invertebrate pathology, 2005Co-Authors: Michael S. Eng, Evan L. Preisser, Donald R StrongAbstract:Entomopathogenic Nematodes are widespread in nature and commonly used in the biological control of insect pests. However, we understand little about how these organisms disperse. We show in a laboratory setting that the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis marelatus is phoretically dispersed by a non-host organism, the isopod Porcellio scaber. These species both inhabit tunnels excavated in the roots and lower stems of bush lupine (Lupinus arboreus) by the Nematodes' primary prey, larvae of the ghost moth Hepialus californicus. Phoretic dispersal via P. scaber may play a role in the metapopulation dynamics of this Nematode.
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Short communication Phoresy of the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis marelatus by a non-host organism, the isopod Porcellio scaber
2005Co-Authors: Michael S. Eng, Evan L. Preisser, Donald R StrongAbstract:Entomopathogenic Nematodes are widespread in nature and commonly used in the biological control of insect pests. However, we understand little about how these organisms disperse. We show in a laboratory setting that the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis marelatus is phoretically dispersed by a non-host organism, the isopod Porcellio scaber. These species both inhabit tunnels excavated in the roots and lower stems of bush lupine (Lupinus arboreus) by the Nematodes’ primary prey, larvae of the ghost moth Hepialus californicus. Phoretic dispersal via P. scaber may play a role in the metapopulation dynamics of this Nematode.
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suppression of an Entomopathogenic Nematode by the Nematode trapping fungi geniculifera paucispora and monacrosporium eudermatum as affected by the fungus arthrobotrys oligospora
Mycologia, 1997Co-Authors: Albrecht M Koppenhofer, B A Jaffee, A E Muldoon, Donald R StrongAbstract:In soils of a coastal shrubland, Nematode- trapping fungi may influence the distribution of the Entomopathogenic Nematode, Heterorhabditis hepi- alus. In previous studies with shrubland soil, Arthro- botrys oligospora was the most common fungus, fol- lowed by Monacrosporium eudermatum and Geniculi- fera paucispora, and all three fungi suppressed H. he- pialus when tested individually in soil microcosms. Because shrubland soil usually contained multiple species of Nematode-trapping fungi, and especially A. oligospora, we quantified Nematode suppression by combinations of A. oligospora and G. paucispora or M. eudermatum. Fungi were added in the form of fungal-colonized Nematodes to pasteurized soil, and Nematode suppression was measured by comparing Nematode invasion of wax moth larvae. Suppression of H. hepialus tended to be less in mixed treatments with A. oligospora than in treatments with G. paucis- pora or M. eudermatum alone. Population densities of M. eudermatum and G. paucispora were less in the presence than in the absence of A. oligospora. In con- trast, A. oligospora population density was unaffected or possibly enhanced by the other fungi.
Khuong B Nguyen - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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steinernema phyllophagae n sp rhabditida steinernematidae a new Entomopathogenic Nematode from florida usa
Nematology, 2011Co-Authors: Khuong B Nguyen, Eileen A BussAbstract:A new species of Entomopathogenic Nematode, Steinernema phyllophagae n. sp., was isolated from a white grub (Phyllophaga sp.) in a live oak (Quercus virginiana) nursery. The new species is characterised by morphometrics of the infective Sjuvenile (IJ) with body length 1289 (1133-1395) μm, distance from anterior end to the excretory pore 99 (84-120) μm, tail 89 (77-109) μm, ratio a = 31 (27.6-35.5), H% = 57 (51-60) and E% = 110 (70-139). The pattern of the lateral field of IJ of the new species is 2, 5, 6, 8, 6, 2. The male of the first generation can be recognised by the length and shape of the spicule and gubernaculum, position of the excretory pore, D% = 75 (68-80), and GS% = 71 (61-77). The female can be recognised by the vulva having low epiptygma and by the presence of several papilla-like structures near the tail tip. Steinernema phyllophagae n. sp. differs further from other species of Steinernema by characteristics of ITS and D2D3 regions of rDNA.
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steinernema brazilense n sp rhabditida steinernematidae a new Entomopathogenic Nematode from mato grosso brazil
Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 2010Co-Authors: Khuong B Nguyen, Luis Garrigos Leite, Carmen Ambros M Ginarte, Jaime Maia Dos Santos, Ricardo HarakavaAbstract:A new Entomopathogenic Nematode, Steinernema brazilense n. sp., was isolated from a single soil sample collected from a natural forest in Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil. S. brazilense n. sp. is characterized morphologically by features of infective juveniles (IJ), males and females. For the IJ, body length averaging 1157 (1023-1284)microm, distance from anterior end to excretory pore 95 (87-102)microm, from anterior end to end of esophagus 148 (139-153)microm, tail length 85 (80-104)microm, D% and E% values 63 (58-70) and 106 (95-118.0), respectively. Lateral field pattern variable; the formula for the arrangement of ridges from head to tail is: 2, 4, 6, 8, 6, 2. For the male, the diagnostic characters include spicule averaging 83 (75-89)microm; D% about 65; the ratio SW% about 192. The length of spicule head is greater than width. Lateral field with one narrow ridge. First generation females are characterized by the presence of a ventral postanal swelling. S. brazilense n. sp. is morphologically close to Steinernema diaprepesi. It can be differentiated from S.diaprepesi by its longer IJ body length (1157 vs 1002microm), longer distance from anterior end to excretory pore (110 vs 75microm), a longer tail length (103 vs 83microm); males of the new species with longer spicule (83 vs 79microm). The new species can be distinguished further from other members of Steinernema glaseri group by characteristics of rDNA of ITS and D2D3 regions.
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steinernema australe n sp panagrolaimomorpha steinernematidae a new Entomopathogenic Nematode from isla magdalena chile
Nematology, 2009Co-Authors: Steve Edgington, Khuong B Nguyen, Alan G Buddie, Lukasz M Tymo, David J Hunt, Loreto M Merino, Dave MooreAbstract:A new species of Entomopathogenic Nematode, Steinernema australe n. sp., was isolated from a soil sample taken close to the beach on Isla Magdalena, an island in the Pacific Ocean, 2 km from mainland Chile. Morphologically the new species belongs to the glaseri-group and is characterised by morphometrics of the infective juvenile which has a very long body of 1316 (1162-1484) μm, excretory pore located far posterior to the anterior extremity (110 (95-125) μm), exceptionally long tail of 103 (92-114) μm, H% = 51 (42-61), E% = 107 (94-122) and a ratio = 35 (31-38). The first generation male has 72 (55-78) μm long spicules, a 45 (36-51) μm long gubernaculum and SW% = 172 (118-196). The first generation female can be recognised by well developed double epiptygmata, the lack of a prominent postanal swelling, a mucron on the tail tip and (in 60% of individuals) one to two subsidiary mucrons. Sequences of the ITS and D2D3 regions of the ribosomal DNA confirm that S. australe n. sp. is a valid species.
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heterorhabditis safricana n sp rhabditida heterorhabditidae a new Entomopathogenic Nematode from south africa
Nematology, 2008Co-Authors: Antoinette P. Malan, Khuong B Nguyen, Jeanne Y De Waal, Louwrence TiedtAbstract:CITATION: Malan, A. P. et al. 2008. Heterorhabditis safricana n. sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) : a new Entomopathogenic Nematode from South Africa. Nematology, 10(3):381-396, doi:10.1163/156854108783900258.
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steinernema khoisanae n sp rhabditida steinernematidae a new Entomopathogenic Nematode from south africa
Nematology, 2006Co-Authors: Khuong B Nguyen, Antoinette P. Malan, Ugur GozelAbstract:A new species of Entomopathogenic Nematode, Steinernema khoisanae n. sp. is described from South Africa. The new species is characterised by morphometrics of the infective juvenile with body length 1076 μm, narrow body diameter of 33 μm, excretory pore 94 μm from anterior end, tail 85 μm long, a = 33, D% = 68, H% = 57, and E% = 111. The lateral field pattern of the new species is 2, 7, 8, 6, 4 and 2. The male of the first generation can be recognised by the spicule and the gubernaculum shape, excretory pore located posteriorly near the end of the pharynx, D% = 88, and SW% = 199. The first generation female can be recognised by the non-protruding vulva and tail bearing a prominent mucron. Steinernema khoisanae n. sp. is characterised genetically by sequences of the internal transcribed spacers and D2/D3 regions of 28S ribosomal DNA, by composition of their sequences and by numerous unique, derived, nucleotide character states. Phylogenetic trees show that S. khoisanae n. sp. and other members of the S. glaseri-group form a monophyletic assemblage.
Randy Gaugler - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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transcriptomic analysis of the Entomopathogenic Nematode heterorhabditis bacteriophora tto1
BMC Genomics, 2009Co-Authors: Byron J Adams, Randy Gaugler, Todd A Ciche, Saskia A Hogenhout, Paul W Sternberg, Sandra W Clifton, John Spieth, Richard K WilsonAbstract:The Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and its symbiotic bacterium, Photorhabdus luminescens, are important biological control agents of insect pests. This Nematode-bacterium-insect association represents an emerging tripartite model for research on mutualistic and parasitic symbioses. Elucidation of mechanisms underlying these biological processes may serve as a foundation for improving the biological control potential of the Nematode-bacterium complex. This large-scale expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis effort enables gene discovery and development of microsatellite markers. These ESTs will also aid in the annotation of the upcoming complete genome sequence of H. bacteriophora. A total of 31,485 high quality ESTs were generated from cDNA libraries of the adult H. bacteriophora TTO1 strain. Cluster analysis revealed the presence of 3,051 contigs and 7,835 singletons, representing 10,886 distinct EST sequences. About 72% of the distinct EST sequences had significant matches (E value < 1e-5) to proteins in GenBank's non-redundant (nr) and Wormpep190 databases. We have identified 12 ESTs corresponding to 8 genes potentially involved in RNA interference, 22 ESTs corresponding to 14 genes potentially involved in dauer-related processes, and 51 ESTs corresponding to 27 genes potentially involved in defense and stress responses. Comparison to ESTs and proteins of free-living Nematodes led to the identification of 554 parasitic Nematode-specific ESTs in H. bacteriophora, among which are those encoding F-box-like/WD-repeat protein theromacin, Bax inhibitor-1-like protein, and PAZ domain containing protein. Gene Ontology terms were assigned to 6,685 of the 10,886 ESTs. A total of 168 microsatellite loci were identified with primers designable for 141 loci. A total of 10,886 distinct EST sequences were identified from adult H. bacteriophora cDNA libraries. BLAST searches revealed ESTs potentially involved in parasitism, RNA interference, defense responses, stress responses, and dauer-related processes. The putative microsatellite markers identified in H. bacteriophora ESTs will enable genetic mapping and population genetic studies. These genomic resources provide the material base necessary for genome annotation, microarray development, and in-depth gene functional analysis.
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application pattern and persistence of the Entomopathogenic Nematode heterorhabditis bacteriophora
Biological Control, 2003Co-Authors: Michael T Wilson, Edwin E. Lewis, Floyd Yoder, Randy GauglerAbstract:Abstract Scarab beetle larvae are widespread insect pests that can be controlled by the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. The Nematode is applied as an inundative biological control agent, which means that large numbers ( ≈2.5×10 9 ha −1 ) are applied uniformly to crops. Nematode persistence in these systems tends to be poor. Many theoretical mechanisms have been proposed whereby spatial structure can promote population persistence. We hypothesized that Nematode persistence could be enhanced by applying Nematodes in spatial distributions other than the typical uniform distribution. We applied H. bacteriophora ( 2.5×10 9 ha −1 ) to 3×3 m plots of turf in three spatial patterns: (1) uniform distribution; (2) one central circular patch (diameter 1.12 m); and (3) nine individual patches (diameter 0.38 m). Nematode persistence and spatial distribution were monitored over 1 year. In all treatments, Nematode numbers declined to similar levels. Over time, the Nematodes applied in patches moved from their initial application sites and became more evenly distributed, whereas the distribution of Nematodes in plots with uniform application became patchier as Nematodes died. No significant differences were observed in Nematode numbers or spatial pattern from week 20 until the end of the experiment. Grub densities were measured at the end of the experiment. Nematodes that had been applied uniformly or in nine patches significantly reduced grub numbers, but the one-patch application did not.
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enhancement of Entomopathogenic Nematode production in in vitro liquid culture of heterorhabditis bacteriophora by fed batch culture with glucose supplementation
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2002Co-Authors: G H Gil, H Y Choo, Randy GauglerAbstract:Nematode yield is a decisive factor for successful large-scale commercial production of Entomopathogenic Nematode. Various carbon sources were tested in in-vitro liquid culture to improve the yield of the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. Canola oil was the optimal carbon source for Nematode culture compared to carbohydrates when applied as a sole carbon source. However, when some of carbohydrates were applied together with canola oil, significant increases in Nematode yield were observed. When 25 mg glucose ml–1 was supplemented to 25 mg oil-based liquid culture medium ml–1, the highest Nematode yield, 3.62×105 infective juveniles, was achieved at 12 days, but Nematode growth was suppressed at higher than 75 mg glucose ml–1. A fed-batch culture process was introduced in Nematode liquid culture consisting of two growth phases: bacteria and Nematode. In the oil fed-batch culture, in which only glucose was initially added and oil was fed to the culture after the bacterial growth phase concurrent with Nematode inoculation, Nematode yield increased up to 4.25×105 infective juveniles ml–1, while the batch culture resulted in 3.60×105 infective juveniles ml–1. These results indicate that glucose is a superior carbon source for the bacteria, whereas canola oil is optimal for the Nematode. The application of fed-batch culture provides significant enhancement of Nematode yield in in-vitro liquid culture.
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aggressive and evasive behaviors in popillia japonica coleoptera scarabaeidae larvae defenses against Entomopathogenic Nematode attack
Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 1994Co-Authors: Randy Gaugler, Yi Wang, James F. CampbellAbstract:Larvae of the Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica , respond to attack by infective juveniles of the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora with aggressive and evasive behaviors. Brushing with the legs and rubbing with the abrasive raster were key aggressive behaviors associated with Nematode attack in petri dish assays. Remarkably, contact with even a single live Nematode triggered behavioral countermeasures directed at eliminating the attacker. Unrestrained P. japonica free to display aggressive behaviors removed more than 60% of attacking Nematodes from their cuticle and experienced significantly less parasitism than larvae restrained from displaying defensive behaviors (13% or less of the Nematodes removed). Unrestrained larvae were also capable of killing 20.6 ± 4.7% of the attacking Nematodes. Observations of aggressive behavior in soil assays supported our petri dish results. Moreover, larvae were observed to respond to the presence of Nematodes with evasive behavior. These defense behaviors are so generalized it appears unlikely that they evolved as a specific scarab evolutionary response to selection pressure from Entomopathogenic Nematodes, but rather to any threat or irritant.
Edwin E. Lewis - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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ecological influence of the Entomopathogenic Nematode steinernema carpocapsae on pistachio orchard soil arthropods
Pedobiologia, 2012Co-Authors: Amanda K. Hodson, J P Siegel, Edwin E. LewisAbstract:Abstract The Entomopathogenic Nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae, can reduce pesticide reliance in pistachios by controlling overwintering larvae of the navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). But, beyond this, their influence in pistachio soil food webs is unclear. Given soil food webs’ complexity, S. carpocapsae likely interact with more species than just their intended target, infecting alternate hosts or providing food for native predators. This study quantifies the Nematodes’ effects on soil arthropod and surface arthropod diversity in two large orchards in Madera County, California. We found significantly more isotomid collembolans, predatory anystid mites and gnaphosid spiders under trees where Nematodes were applied indicating either direct predation or indirect trophic effects. Significantly fewer Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) and Blapstinus discolor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) were found under treated trees, suggesting a possible non-target infection. Nematode persistence was limited but positively correlated with pitfall catches of the tenebrionid beetles, Nyctoporis cristata and B. discolor.
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European earwig (Forficula auricularia) as a novel host for the Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema carpocapsae
Journal of invertebrate pathology, 2011Co-Authors: Amanda K. Hodson, M.l. Friedman, Edwin E. LewisAbstract:Abstract The natural history of many Entomopathogenic Nematode species remains unknown, despite their wide commercial availability as biological control agents. The ambushing Entomopathogenic Nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae , and the introduced European earwig, Forficula auricularia , forage on the soil surface. Since they likely encounter one another in nature, we hypothesized that earwigs are susceptible to Nematode infection. In the laboratory, the LC 50 for F. auricularia was 226 S. carpocapsae /earwig and the reproductive potential was 123.5 infective juvenile Nematodes/mg tissue. This susceptibility depended on host body size with significantly higher mortality rates seen in larger earwigs. In a study of host recognition behavior, S. carpocapsae infective juveniles responded to earwig cuticle as strongly as they did to Galleria mellonella cuticle. We also found that earwigs exposed to S. carpocapsae cleaned and scratched their front, middle and back legs significantly more than controls. Coupled with previous field data, these findings lead us to suggest that F. auricularia may be a potential host for S. carpocapsae .
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responses of the Entomopathogenic Nematode steinernema riobrave to its insect hosts galleria mellonella and tenebrio molitor
Parasitology, 2007Co-Authors: Jayne M Christen, James F. Campbell, Edwin E. Lewis, David I Shapiroilan, Sonny B RamaswamyAbstract:Potential hosts for infective juveniles of Entomopathogenic Nematodes can vary considerably in quality based on the characteristics of the host species/stage, physiological status (e.g. stress, feeding on toxins), and infection status (heterospecific or conspecific infection). In this study, we investigated responses of the Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema riobrave to hosts ( Galleria mellonella or Tenebrio molitor ) that were previously parasitized with conspecifics or injected with the Nematode-symbiotic bacterium, Xenorhabdus sp., to determine if there is a preference for previously parasitized/injected hosts and when this preference might occur. In no-choice bioassays, the number of juveniles infecting both host species decreased with increasing time post-infection. However, infective juveniles continued to infect previously parasitized hosts up to 72 h. Significant preference was exhibited by S. riobrave for 24 h post-infection G. mellonella larvae over uninfected, and by 24 h post-injection G . mellonella larvae over 48 h post-injection larvae. No significant preference was exhibited by S. riobrave for T. molitor hosts previously parasitized with conspecifics or those injected with bacteria in any treatment combination. Such preference for, or continued infection of parasitized insects, has the potential to impact Nematode efficacy.
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application pattern and persistence of the Entomopathogenic Nematode heterorhabditis bacteriophora
Biological Control, 2003Co-Authors: Michael T Wilson, Edwin E. Lewis, Floyd Yoder, Randy GauglerAbstract:Abstract Scarab beetle larvae are widespread insect pests that can be controlled by the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. The Nematode is applied as an inundative biological control agent, which means that large numbers ( ≈2.5×10 9 ha −1 ) are applied uniformly to crops. Nematode persistence in these systems tends to be poor. Many theoretical mechanisms have been proposed whereby spatial structure can promote population persistence. We hypothesized that Nematode persistence could be enhanced by applying Nematodes in spatial distributions other than the typical uniform distribution. We applied H. bacteriophora ( 2.5×10 9 ha −1 ) to 3×3 m plots of turf in three spatial patterns: (1) uniform distribution; (2) one central circular patch (diameter 1.12 m); and (3) nine individual patches (diameter 0.38 m). Nematode persistence and spatial distribution were monitored over 1 year. In all treatments, Nematode numbers declined to similar levels. Over time, the Nematodes applied in patches moved from their initial application sites and became more evenly distributed, whereas the distribution of Nematodes in plots with uniform application became patchier as Nematodes died. No significant differences were observed in Nematode numbers or spatial pattern from week 20 until the end of the experiment. Grub densities were measured at the end of the experiment. Nematodes that had been applied uniformly or in nine patches significantly reduced grub numbers, but the one-patch application did not.
James F. Campbell - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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responses of the Entomopathogenic Nematode steinernema riobrave to its insect hosts galleria mellonella and tenebrio molitor
Parasitology, 2007Co-Authors: Jayne M Christen, James F. Campbell, Edwin E. Lewis, David I Shapiroilan, Sonny B RamaswamyAbstract:Potential hosts for infective juveniles of Entomopathogenic Nematodes can vary considerably in quality based on the characteristics of the host species/stage, physiological status (e.g. stress, feeding on toxins), and infection status (heterospecific or conspecific infection). In this study, we investigated responses of the Entomopathogenic Nematode Steinernema riobrave to hosts ( Galleria mellonella or Tenebrio molitor ) that were previously parasitized with conspecifics or injected with the Nematode-symbiotic bacterium, Xenorhabdus sp., to determine if there is a preference for previously parasitized/injected hosts and when this preference might occur. In no-choice bioassays, the number of juveniles infecting both host species decreased with increasing time post-infection. However, infective juveniles continued to infect previously parasitized hosts up to 72 h. Significant preference was exhibited by S. riobrave for 24 h post-infection G. mellonella larvae over uninfected, and by 24 h post-injection G . mellonella larvae over 48 h post-injection larvae. No significant preference was exhibited by S. riobrave for T. molitor hosts previously parasitized with conspecifics or those injected with bacteria in any treatment combination. Such preference for, or continued infection of parasitized insects, has the potential to impact Nematode efficacy.
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Inter-specifie variation in Entomopathogenic Nematode foraging strategy: dichotomy or variation along a continuum?
1996Co-Authors: James F. Campbell, Y R. GauglerAbstract:Summary- The ability of six Entomopathogenic Nematode species with different foraging behaviors to find hosts with diffe-rent levels of mobility (restrained and unrestrained Galleria mellonella) was investigated. Steinernema carpocapsae and S. scapte-risei tend to stand on their tails in a primarily straight non-moving posture for extended periods of time (nictation). These species exhibit an ambush foraging strategy and were most effective at finding the mobile, unrestrained, larvae. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and S. glaseri do not nictate and were most effective at finding the restrained larvae; typical of a cmise forager. Another non-nictating species, S. feitiae, and a species which nictates infrequently, S. riobravis, were able to find both types of hosts, suggesting they use an intermediate foraging strategy. The intermediate foraging strategy of S. feitiae may result from it raising more than 30 % of its body off the substrate (body-waving) more frequently than the other non-nictating species. Résumé- Variabilité interspécifique dans la stratégie de recherche d'hôte chez les nématodes entomopathogènes: dualité ou variation suivant un continuum?- L'aptitude de six espèces de nématodes entomopathogènes ayant des comportements différents dans la recherche d'hôtes ayant eux-mêmes des taux de mobilité variables (Galleria mellonella avec ou sans restriction de mouvement) a été évaluée. Steinernema carpocapsae et S. scapterisci ont tendance à se tenir droit sur leur queue sans se déplacer pendant des périodes de temps assez prolongées mais avec des mouvements de pendulation. Ces espèces utilisent une stratégie d'embuscade et sont les plus efficaces pour trouver les larves se déplaçant sans restriction de mouvement. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora et S. glaseri ne montrent pas de mouvement de pendulation et Ont été les plus efficaces pour trouve
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aggressive and evasive behaviors in popillia japonica coleoptera scarabaeidae larvae defenses against Entomopathogenic Nematode attack
Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 1994Co-Authors: Randy Gaugler, Yi Wang, James F. CampbellAbstract:Larvae of the Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica , respond to attack by infective juveniles of the Entomopathogenic Nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora with aggressive and evasive behaviors. Brushing with the legs and rubbing with the abrasive raster were key aggressive behaviors associated with Nematode attack in petri dish assays. Remarkably, contact with even a single live Nematode triggered behavioral countermeasures directed at eliminating the attacker. Unrestrained P. japonica free to display aggressive behaviors removed more than 60% of attacking Nematodes from their cuticle and experienced significantly less parasitism than larvae restrained from displaying defensive behaviors (13% or less of the Nematodes removed). Unrestrained larvae were also capable of killing 20.6 ± 4.7% of the attacking Nematodes. Observations of aggressive behavior in soil assays supported our petri dish results. Moreover, larvae were observed to respond to the presence of Nematodes with evasive behavior. These defense behaviors are so generalized it appears unlikely that they evolved as a specific scarab evolutionary response to selection pressure from Entomopathogenic Nematodes, but rather to any threat or irritant.