The Experts below are selected from a list of 294 Experts worldwide ranked by ideXlab platform
Shang-tian Yang - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Controlling Biofilm Growth and Lactic Acid Production by Rhizopus oryzae in a Rotating Fibrous Bed Bioreactor: Effects of Dissolved Oxygen, Rotational Speed, and Urea Concentration
Journal of The Chinese Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2020Co-Authors: Nuttha Thongchul, Shang-tian YangAbstract:Oxygen was found to be the critical factor affecting lactic acid production by Rhizopus oryzae in a rotating Fibrous bed bioreactor (RFBB), which was used to immobilize fungal mycelia and control fungal morphology during fermentation. A lack of oxygen resulted in low lactic acid production because the pathway becomes shunted to ethanol production, and it eventually leads to a loss in fungal activity and cell death. However, simply maintaining a high level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the RFBB did not significantly improve lactic acid production, whereas increasing oxygen transfer rate led to a slight increase in lactic acid productivity. Ethanol production occurred even though a high oxygen transfer rate in the fermentation medium was maintained, indicating an anoxic condition occurring in the biofilm due to diffusion limitation. The effective diffusivities of oxygen and glucose in the biofilm were determined experimentally and then used in a diffusion model to estimate the critical biofilm thickness, which was found to be much smaller than the actual thickness of the biofilm attached on the Fibrous Matrix, suggesting the occurrence of oxygen starvation in the overgrown biofilm. Controlling the biofilm thickness to prevent oxygen diffusion limitation could be achieved by shaving off the fungal hyphae at the outer region or limiting cell growth by reducing the nitrogen concentration in the medium. Shaving occurs when the shear stress is higher than the hyphae tensile strength, and the shaving rate is proportional to the specific energy dissipation rate, which in turn is affected by the rotational speed of the Fibrous Matrix. However, increasing the rotational speed did not improve lactic acid production because the shear stress generated from the fluid motion was not high enough to shave off fungal hyphae. The growth and metabolic pathway of R. oryzae immobilized on the Fibrous Matrix also can be controlled by manipulating the medium composition, particularly the nitrogen source. It was found that biomass production was limited and lactic acid production increased in the absence of urea in the production phase. However, a lack of nitrogen source could reduce cell activity and product synthesis in long-term cultivation. Therefore, periodical addition of urea during the production phase is recommended to prevent biofilm overgrowth, delay sporulation, and maintain high cell viability and fermentation productivity.
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Long-term Continuous Production of Monoclonal Antibody by Hybridoma Cells Immobilized in a Fibrous-Bed Bioreactor.
Cytotechnology, 2020Co-Authors: Shang-tian YangAbstract:The kinetics and long-term stability of continuous production of monoclonal antibody IgG2b by hybridoma HD-24 cells immobilized in a Fibrous-bed bioreactor (FBB) were studied for a period of approximately 8 months. The cells were immobilized in the Fibrous bed by surface attachment of cells and entrapment of large cell clumps in the void space of the Fibrous Matrix. A high viable cell density of 1.01 x 10(8)/ml was attained in the bioreactor, which was about 63 times higher than those in conventional T-flask and spinner flask cultures. The continuous FBB produced IgG at a concentration of approximately 0.5 g/l, with reactor productivity of approximately 7 mg/h.l, which was about 23 times higher than those from conventional T-flask and spinner flask cultures. The IgG concentration can be further increased to approximately 0.67 g/l by using higher feed (glucose and glutamine) concentrations and running the reactor at a recycle batch or fed-batch mode. The long-term performance of this bioreactor was also evaluated. For a period of 36 days monitored, the MAb produced in the continuous well-mixed bioreactor at 50 h retention time (0.02/h dilution rate) was maintained at a steady concentration level of approximately 0.3 g/l with less than 8% drift. At the end of the study, it was found that approximately 25% of the cells were strongly attached to the fiber surfaces and the other approximately 75% entrapped or weakly immobilized in the Fibrous Matrix. The strongly attached cells had a high viability of approximately 90%, compared to approximately 75% for cells weakly immobilized and only approximately 1.4% for freely suspended cells, suggesting that the Fibrous Matrix preferentially retained and protected the viable (productive) cells. The FBB thus was able to maintain its long-term productivity because nonviable and dead cells were continuously washed off from the Fibrous Matrix. The high MAb concentration and production rate and excellent stability for continuous long-term production obtained in this study compare favorably to other bioreactor studies reported in the literature. The reactor performance can be further improved by providing better pH and aeration controls at higher feed concentrations. The FBB is easy to operate and scale-up, and thus can be used economically for industrial production of MAb.
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A Fibrous-Bed Bioreactor for Continuous Production of Monoclonal Antibody by Hybridoma
2012Co-Authors: Shang-tian Yang, Jun Luo, Chunnuan ChenAbstract:A Fibrous-bed bioreactor (FBB) has been developed to culture hybridoma cells for long-term continuous production of monoclonal antibody (MAb). A non-woven polyester Fibrous Matrix was used to immobilize the cells to reach a high viable cell density of 3 x 10(8) cells cm(-3) packed bed, which gave a high volumetric MAb productivity of 1 g L(-1) day(-1) under continuous feed conditions with the medium containing 10% serum. Reducing the medium serum content to 1% increased MAb production to 6.5 g L(-1) day(-1) in a repeated batch FBB culture. MAb production was higher at higher dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the range between 10% and 70% of air saturation, although DO did not significantly affect glucose metabolism and lactate production. The medium LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) level increased dramatically when the DO level was decreased from 30% to 10%, suggesting that a critical DO level of approximately 30% is necessary for maintaining the FBB culture for long-term operation. Compared with suspension cultures in T-flasks and spinner flasks, the FBB culture had a lower lactate yield from glucose (0.80 vs. 0.91 g g(-1), produced MAb at a higher concentration (up to 442 mg L(-1) vs. 83.5 mg L(-1), and was stable for continuous long-term operation (more than 1 month). The superior FBB performance was attributed to the highly porous Fibrous Matrix that enabled the efficient mass transfer, cell immobilization, and continued growth and regeneration that are critical to maintaining a high density of viable and productive cell populations. The cells immobilized in the Fibrous Matrix had high viability (>85%) even though many of them were in growth arrest (G1/G0 phase) as indicated by their smaller cell size (
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effects of Fibrous Matrix on flow startup and control in parallel pdms microchannels with a common inlet
Microfluidics and Nanofluidics, 2010Co-Authors: Shang-tian YangAbstract:Poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) is widely used in microfluidic devices. However, its relatively high hydrophobicity causes difficulties in flow startup among parallel microchannels, leading to permanent idleness of incompletely filled channels. It was found that capillary pressure arising from bubbles spanning the cross-section of a microchannel was the major force for flow blockage. The threshold flowrate for uniform flow startup in parallel microchannels was dictated by balancing the maximum capillary pressure and the hydrodynamic pressure drop in a microchannel, which was confirmed in a series of experiments using 2 × 4 and 4 × 4 perfusion microreactor arrays. Filling microchannels with porous Fibrous matrices can increase the hydrodynamic pressure drop and thus allows uniform flow startup at low threshold flowrates. This study demonstrated that the use of Fibrous matrices in microchannels provided a simple yet effective method of controlling uniform flow startup in parallel hydrophobic microchannels.
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effects of three dimensional culturing in a Fibrous Matrix on cell cycle apoptosis and mab production by hybridoma cells
Biotechnology Progress, 2008Co-Authors: Shang-tian YangAbstract:The effects of culturing hybridoma cells in a three-dimensional (3-D) poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) Fibrous Matrix on cell cycle, apoptosis, metabolism, and monoclonal antibody (MAb) production were evaluated by comparing with two-dimensional (2-D) culturing on microcarrier and multiwell plate surfaces. The percentage of cells in the G1/G0 phase increased during the long-term culturing period of ∼4 weeks. Compared to the 2-D culture systems, cells grown in 3-D matrices had higher MAb productivity for long-term culture. Decreasing serum content in the culture medium increased both MAb productivity and apoptosis. However, the 3-D culture had a greater increase in MAb productivity and a much lower apoptotic rate than the 2-D culture, especially at 0% serum. Most cells in the 3-D Fibrous Matrix formed large aggregates and were smaller than cells grown on a 2-D surface or in suspension. The smaller cell size allowed cells to survive better in the high-cell-density environment. The Fibrous Matrix also selectively retained healthy, nonapoptotic cells. These results suggested that the 3-D Fibrous Matrix contributed to growth arrest, protected cells to better resist low-serum environments, and reduced apoptosis, all of which contributed to the high viable cell density and volumetric MAb productivity in the long-term 3-D culture.
Manitha B Nair - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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evaluation of osteoinductive and endothelial differentiation potential of platelet rich plasma incorporated gelatin nanohydroxyapatite Fibrous Matrix
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B, 2016Co-Authors: J Anjana, Shruthy Kuttappan, Kripa S Keyan, Manitha B NairAbstract:In this study, platelet-rich plasma (PRP) was incorporated into gelatin-nanohydroxyapatite Fibrous scaffold in two forms (PRP gel as coating on the scaffold [PCSC] and PRP powder within the scaffold [PCSL] and investigated for (a) growth factor release; (b) stability of scaffold at different temperature; (c) stability of scaffold before and after ETO sterilization; and (d) osteogenic and endothelial differentiation potential using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). PCSC demonstrated a high and burst growth factor release initially followed by a gradual reduction in its concentration, while PCSL showed a steady state release pattern for 30 days. The stability of growth factors released from PCSL was not altered either through ETO sterilization or through its storage at different temperature. PRP-loaded scaffolds induced the differentiation of MSCs into osteogenic and endothelial lineage without providing any induction factors in the cell culture medium and the differentiation rate was significantly higher when compared to the scaffolds devoid of PRP. PCSC performed better than PCSL. In general, PRP in combination with composite Fibrous scaffold could be a promising candidate for bone tissue engineering applications.
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Evaluation of osteoinductive and endothelial differentiation potential of Platelet-Rich Plasma incorporated Gelatin-Nanohydroxyapatite Fibrous Matrix.
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B, 2016Co-Authors: Anjana J, Shruthy Kuttappan, Kripa S Keyan, Manitha B NairAbstract:In this study, platelet-rich plasma (PRP) was incorporated into gelatin-nanohydroxyapatite Fibrous scaffold in two forms (PRP gel as coating on the scaffold [PCSC] and PRP powder within the scaffold [PCSL] and investigated for (a) growth factor release; (b) stability of scaffold at different temperature; (c) stability of scaffold before and after ETO sterilization; and (d) osteogenic and endothelial differentiation potential using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). PCSC demonstrated a high and burst growth factor release initially followed by a gradual reduction in its concentration, while PCSL showed a steady state release pattern for 30 days. The stability of growth factors released from PCSL was not altered either through ETO sterilization or through its storage at different temperature. PRP-loaded scaffolds induced the differentiation of MSCs into osteogenic and endothelial lineage without providing any induction factors in the cell culture medium and the differentiation rate was significantly higher when compared to the scaffolds devoid of PRP. PCSC performed better than PCSL. In general, PRP in combination with composite Fibrous scaffold could be a promising candidate for bone tissue engineering applications. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 104B: 771–781, 2016.
Yan Li - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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electrospun biodegradable polyorganophosphazene Fibrous Matrix with poly dopamine coating for bone regeneration
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 2014Co-Authors: Yan Li, Zhanpeng Wu, Shun Duan, Dingying Shan, Xiaoping YangAbstract:Biodegradable polyphosphazenes were categorized as osteoinductive materials because of their phosphorus-containing feature; however, they were less supportive in cell attachment and proliferation at earlier points in comparison with biodegradable aliphatic polyesters. Therefore, mussel-inspired surface modification of poly(alanine ethyl ester -co- glycine ethyl ester)phosphazene (PAGP) was studied, intending to circumvent the above-mentioned disadvantage of polyphosphazene. To this end, PAGP and poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) were electrospun into nanoFibrous substrates and surface treated with dopamine aqueous solution. With the analysis of scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron spectroscope, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscope, the successful poly(dopamine) coating was identified on both PAGP and PLLA nanofibers. MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts were found attaching and proliferating much well on poly(dopamine)-modified nanoFibrous substrates in comparison with the pristine ones. In addition, the poly(dopamine) coating demonstrated high activity in promoting osteogenous differentiation. Because the phosphorus content on nanofiber surface was decreased with the poly(dopamine) coating, the poly(dopamine)-coated PAGP nanoFibrous substrate was slightly inferior to pure PAGP nanoFibrous substrate in osteogenous differentiation. In a summary, the results confirmed that poly(dopamine)-modified polyphosphazenes were promising scaffold materials with both high cell affinity and high osteocompatibility for bone regeneration. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 102A: 3894–3902, 2014.
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Electrospun biodegradable polyorganophosphazene Fibrous Matrix with poly(dopamine) coating for bone regeneration
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research - Part A, 2014Co-Authors: Yan Li, Zhanpeng Wu, Yuzhou Shi, Shun Duan, Qing Cai, Dingying Shan, Xiaoping YangAbstract:Biodegradable polyphosphazenes were categorized as osteoinductive materials because of their phosphorus-containing feature; however, they were less supportive in cell attachment and proliferation at earlier points in comparison with biodegradable aliphatic polyesters. Therefore, mussel-inspired surface modification of poly(alanine ethyl ester-co-glycine ethyl ester)phosphazene (PAGP) was studied, intending to circumvent the above-mentioned disadvantage of polyphosphazene. To this end, PAGP and poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) were electrospun into nanoFibrous substrates and surface treated with dopamine aqueous solution. With the analysis of scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron spectroscope, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscope, the successful poly(dopamine) coating was identified on both PAGP and PLLA nanofibers. MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts were found attaching and proliferating much well on poly(dopamine)-modified nanoFibrous substrates in comparison with the pristine ones. In addition, the poly(dopamine) coating demonstrated high activity in promoting osteogenous differentiation. Because the phosphorus content on nanofiber surface was decreased with the poly(dopamine) coating, the poly(dopamine)-coated PAGP nanoFibrous substrate was slightly inferior to pure PAGP nanoFibrous substrate in osteogenous differentiation. In a summary, the results confirmed that poly(dopamine)-modified polyphosphazenes were promising scaffold materials with both high cell affinity and high osteocompatibility for bone regeneration.
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Culturing and differentiation of murine embryonic stem cells in a three-dimensional Fibrous Matrix
Cytotechnology, 2003Co-Authors: Yan Li, Douglas A Kniss, Larry C. Lasky, Shang-tian YangAbstract:Embryonic stem (ES) cells have indefinite self-renewal ability and pluripotency, and can provide a novel cell source for tissue engineering applications. In this study, a murine CCE ES cell line was used to derive hematopoietic cells in a 3-D Fibrous Matrix. The 3-D Matrix was found to maintain the phenotypes of undifferentiated ES cells as indicated by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and stage specific embryonic antigen-1 (SSEA-1) expression. In hematopoietic differentiation, cells from 3-D culture exhibited similar cell cycle distribution and SSEA-1 expression to those in the initial cell population. The Oct-4 expression was significantly down-regulated, which indicated the occurrence of differentiation, although the level was slightly higher than that in Petri dish culture. The expression of c-kit, cell surface marker for hematopoietic progenitor, was higher in the 3-D culture, suggesting a better-directed hematopoietic differentiation. Cells in the 3-D Matrix tended to form large aggregates associated with fibers. For large-scale processes, a perfusion bioreactor can be used for both maintenance and differentiation cultures. As compared to the static culture, a higher growth rate and final cell density were resulted from the perfusion bioreactor due to better control of the reactor environment. At the same time, the differentiation capacity of ES cells was preserved in the perfusion culture. The ES cell culture in the Fibrous Matrix thus can be used as a 3-D model system to study effects of extracellular environment and associated physico-chemical parameters on ES cell maintenance and differentiation.
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effects of pore size in 3 d Fibrous Matrix on human trophoblast tissue development
Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 2000Co-Authors: Yan Li, Shang-tian Yang, Douglas A KnissAbstract:The effects of pore size in a 3-D polyethylene terephthalate (PET) nonwoven Fibrous Matrix on long-term tissue development of human trophoblast ED27 cells were studied. Thermal compression was used to modify the porosity and pore size of the PET Matrix. The pore size distributions in PET matrices were quantified using a liquid extrusion method. Cell metabolic activities, estradiol production, and cell proliferation and differentiation were studied for ED27 cells cultured in the thermally compressed PET matrices with known pore structure characteristics. In general, metabolic activities and proliferation rate were higher initially for cultures grown in the low-porosity (LP) PET Matrix (porosity of 0.849, average pore size of 30 μm in diameter) than those in the high-porosity (HP) Matrix (porosity of 0.896, average pore size of 39 μm in diameter). However, 17β-estradiol production and cell differentiation activity in the HP Matrix surpassed those in the LP Matrix after 12 days. The expression levels of cyclin B1 and p27kip1 in cells revealed progressively decreasing proliferation and increasing differentiation activities for cells grown in PET matrices. Also, difference in pore size controlled the cell spatial organization in the PET matrices and contributed to the tissue development in varying degrees of proliferation and differentiation. It was also found that cells grown on the 2-D surface behaved differently in cell cycle progression and did not show increased differentiation activities after growth had stopped and proliferation activities had lowered to a minimal level. The results from this study suggest that the 3-D cell organization guided by the tissue scaffold is important to tissue formation in vitro. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Biotechnol Bioeng 70: 606–618, 2000.
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tissue engineering human placenta trophoblast cells in 3 d Fibrous Matrix spatial effects on cell proliferation and function
Biotechnology Progress, 1999Co-Authors: Yan Li, Shang-tian Yang, Douglas A KnissAbstract:Nonwoven polyethylene teraphathalate (PET) fabrics with different porosities and knitted fabric were used as support Matrixes to grow human trophoblast cells to study the spatial effects of Fibrous Matrix on cell adhesion, spatial organization, proliferation, and metabolic functions. In general, cells grown on 2-D surface and knitted fabric had faster metabolic rates and also showed higher proliferation activities as detected by cyclin B assay. For nonwoven PET fibers, Matrix porosity had profound effects on cell morphology, spatial organization, and proliferation. Cells grown in a low-porosity Fibrous Matrix formed small aggregates (∼100 cells per aggregate), whereas cells grown in high-porosity Matrix formed big aggregates (∼1000 cells per aggregate). This was attributed to the difference in pore volume or averaged fiber distance, which dictated a cell's ability to cross over and form a bridge between adjacent fibers. The high-porosity Matrix had a relatively poor surface accessibility for cells to attach and spread, which are essential for cell proliferation. Dual staining with PI and BrdU showed that 60% of cells in the small aggregates found in the low-porosity Matrix were proliferating, while only 18% of cells in the large aggregates found in the high-porosity Matrix were proliferating. These results suggest that spatial characteristics of Fibrous Matrix are important to cell proliferation and function and should be considered in tissue-engineering human cells.
Xiaoping Yang - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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electrospun biodegradable polyorganophosphazene Fibrous Matrix with poly dopamine coating for bone regeneration
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 2014Co-Authors: Yan Li, Zhanpeng Wu, Shun Duan, Dingying Shan, Xiaoping YangAbstract:Biodegradable polyphosphazenes were categorized as osteoinductive materials because of their phosphorus-containing feature; however, they were less supportive in cell attachment and proliferation at earlier points in comparison with biodegradable aliphatic polyesters. Therefore, mussel-inspired surface modification of poly(alanine ethyl ester -co- glycine ethyl ester)phosphazene (PAGP) was studied, intending to circumvent the above-mentioned disadvantage of polyphosphazene. To this end, PAGP and poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) were electrospun into nanoFibrous substrates and surface treated with dopamine aqueous solution. With the analysis of scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron spectroscope, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscope, the successful poly(dopamine) coating was identified on both PAGP and PLLA nanofibers. MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts were found attaching and proliferating much well on poly(dopamine)-modified nanoFibrous substrates in comparison with the pristine ones. In addition, the poly(dopamine) coating demonstrated high activity in promoting osteogenous differentiation. Because the phosphorus content on nanofiber surface was decreased with the poly(dopamine) coating, the poly(dopamine)-coated PAGP nanoFibrous substrate was slightly inferior to pure PAGP nanoFibrous substrate in osteogenous differentiation. In a summary, the results confirmed that poly(dopamine)-modified polyphosphazenes were promising scaffold materials with both high cell affinity and high osteocompatibility for bone regeneration. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 102A: 3894–3902, 2014.
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Electrospun biodegradable polyorganophosphazene Fibrous Matrix with poly(dopamine) coating for bone regeneration
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research - Part A, 2014Co-Authors: Yan Li, Zhanpeng Wu, Yuzhou Shi, Shun Duan, Qing Cai, Dingying Shan, Xiaoping YangAbstract:Biodegradable polyphosphazenes were categorized as osteoinductive materials because of their phosphorus-containing feature; however, they were less supportive in cell attachment and proliferation at earlier points in comparison with biodegradable aliphatic polyesters. Therefore, mussel-inspired surface modification of poly(alanine ethyl ester-co-glycine ethyl ester)phosphazene (PAGP) was studied, intending to circumvent the above-mentioned disadvantage of polyphosphazene. To this end, PAGP and poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) were electrospun into nanoFibrous substrates and surface treated with dopamine aqueous solution. With the analysis of scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron spectroscope, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscope, the successful poly(dopamine) coating was identified on both PAGP and PLLA nanofibers. MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts were found attaching and proliferating much well on poly(dopamine)-modified nanoFibrous substrates in comparison with the pristine ones. In addition, the poly(dopamine) coating demonstrated high activity in promoting osteogenous differentiation. Because the phosphorus content on nanofiber surface was decreased with the poly(dopamine) coating, the poly(dopamine)-coated PAGP nanoFibrous substrate was slightly inferior to pure PAGP nanoFibrous substrate in osteogenous differentiation. In a summary, the results confirmed that poly(dopamine)-modified polyphosphazenes were promising scaffold materials with both high cell affinity and high osteocompatibility for bone regeneration.
J Anjana - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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evaluation of osteoinductive and endothelial differentiation potential of platelet rich plasma incorporated gelatin nanohydroxyapatite Fibrous Matrix
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B, 2016Co-Authors: J Anjana, Shruthy Kuttappan, Kripa S Keyan, Manitha B NairAbstract:In this study, platelet-rich plasma (PRP) was incorporated into gelatin-nanohydroxyapatite Fibrous scaffold in two forms (PRP gel as coating on the scaffold [PCSC] and PRP powder within the scaffold [PCSL] and investigated for (a) growth factor release; (b) stability of scaffold at different temperature; (c) stability of scaffold before and after ETO sterilization; and (d) osteogenic and endothelial differentiation potential using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). PCSC demonstrated a high and burst growth factor release initially followed by a gradual reduction in its concentration, while PCSL showed a steady state release pattern for 30 days. The stability of growth factors released from PCSL was not altered either through ETO sterilization or through its storage at different temperature. PRP-loaded scaffolds induced the differentiation of MSCs into osteogenic and endothelial lineage without providing any induction factors in the cell culture medium and the differentiation rate was significantly higher when compared to the scaffolds devoid of PRP. PCSC performed better than PCSL. In general, PRP in combination with composite Fibrous scaffold could be a promising candidate for bone tissue engineering applications.