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Diane N Ruble - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Pink frilly dresses and the avoidance of all things "girly": children's appearance rigidity and cognitive theories of Gender Development
Developmental Psychology, 2013Co-Authors: May Ling Halim, Diane N Ruble, Kristina M Zosuls, Catherine S. Tamis-lemonda, Leah E. Lurye, Faith K. GreulichAbstract:Many young children pass through a stage of Gender appearance rigidity; girls insist on wearing dresses, often pink and frilly, whereas boys refuse to wear anything with a hint of femininity. In 2 studies, we investigated the prevalence of this apparent hallmark of early Gender Development and its relation to children’s growing identification with a Gender category. Study 1a examined the prevalence of this behavior and whether it would exhibit a Developmental pattern of rigidity followed by flexibility, consistent with past research on identity-related cognitions. Interviews with 76 White, middle-class parents and their 3- to 6-year-old children revealed that about two thirds of parents of 3- and 4-year-old girls and almost half (44%) of parents of 5- and 6-year-old boys reported that their children had exhibited a period of rigidity in their Gender-related appearance behavior. Appearance rigidity was not related to parents’ preferences for their children’s Gender-typed clothing. Study 1b examined whether cognitive theories of identity Development could shed light on Gender appearance rigidity. The more important and positive children considered their Gender and the more children understood that Gender categories remain stable over time (Gender stability), the more likely children were to wear Gender-typed outfits. In Study 2, we extended this research to a more diverse population and found that Gender appearance rigidity was also prevalent in 267 4-year-old children in the United States from African American, Chinese, Dominican, and Mexican immigrant low-income backgrounds. Results suggest that rigid Gender-related appearance behavior can be seen among young children from different backgrounds and might reflect early developing cognitions about Gender identity.
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Gender Development research in sex roles historical trends and future directions
Sex Roles, 2011Co-Authors: Kristina M Zosuls, Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N Ruble, Cindy Faith Miller, Richard A FabesAbstract:The late 1960s through the 1970s marked an important turning point in the field of Gender research, including theory and research in Gender Development. The establishment of Sex Roles in 1975 as a forum for this research represented an important milestone in the field. In this article, we celebrate the 35th anniversary of Sex Roles and, in particular, its contributions to the field of research on children’s and adolescents’ Gender Development. We examine the trends in research on Gender Development published in Sex Roles since its inception and use this analysis as a vehicle for exploring how the field has grown and evolved over the past few decades. We begin with a brief review of the history of this field of research since 1975. Then, we present a descriptive assessment of articles published on Gender Development in Sex Roles over time, and link this assessment to general trends that have occurred in the study of Gender Development over the past 35 years. We conclude with a discussion of future directions for the field of Gender Development. In particular, we highlight areas in which the journal could play a role in promoting more diversity in topics, methods, and ages employed in Gender Development research.
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patterns of Gender Development
Annual Review of Psychology, 2010Co-Authors: Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N RubleAbstract:A comprehensive theory of Gender Development must describe and explain long-term Developmental patterning and changes and how Gender is experienced in the short term. This review considers multiple views on Gender patterning, illustrated with contemporary research. First, because Developmental research involves understanding normative patterns of change with age, several theoretically important topics illustrate Gender Development: how children come to recognize Gender distinctions and understand stereotypes, and the emergence of prejudice and sexism. Second, Developmental researchers study the stability of individual differences over time, which elucidates Developmental processes. We review stability in two domains—sex segregation and activities/interests. Finally, a new approach advances understanding of Developmental patterns, based on dynamic systems theory. Dynamic systems theory is a metatheoretical framework for studying stability and change, which developed from the study of complex and nonlinear systems in physics and mathematics. Some major features and examples show how dynamic approaches have been and could be applied in studying Gender Development.
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the role of Gender constancy in early Gender Development
Child Development, 2007Co-Authors: Diane N Ruble, Leah E. Lurye, Faith K. Greulich, Lisa J Taylor, Lisa Cyphers, Patrick E ShroutAbstract:Kohlberg’s (1966) hypothesis that the attainment of Gender constancy motivates children to attend to Gender norms was reevaluated by examining these links in relation to age. Ninety-four 3- to 7-year-old children were interviewed to assess whether and how constancy mediates age-related changes in Gender-related beliefs. As expected, results indicated a general pattern of an increase in stereotype knowledge, the importance and positive evaluation of one’s own Gender category, and rigidity of beliefs between the ages of 3 and 5. Moreover, the stability phase, rather than full constancy, mediated some of these relations. After age 5, rigidity generally decreased with age, with relations primarily mediated by consistency.
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Recognizing the Centrality of Gender Identity and Stereotype Knowledge in Gender Development and Moving Toward Theoretical Integration: Reply to Bandura and Bussey (2004).
Psychological Bulletin, 2004Co-Authors: Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N Ruble, Joel SzkrybaloAbstract:Abstract Most of the critique in the A. Bandura and K. Bussey (see record 2004-18097-001) commentary is a misunderstanding or misrepresentation of the points made by C. L. Martin, D. N. Ruble, and J. Szkrybalo in their 2002 Psychological Bulletin article (see record 2002-18663-003). First, Martin et al. never intended to present a comprehensive theory; instead, it was a review of 2 different cognitive approaches to Gender Development. Second, there is no time line test that has been failed; instead, Gender cognitions may occur earlier than initially believed. Third, Bandura and Bussey dismissed central Gender cognitions-Gender identity and Gender stereotype knowledge-despite considerable evidence in their support. Fourth, Bandura and Bussey never addressed the gaps and ambiguities inherent in their theory that Martin et al. questioned in their earlier article. Finally, Bandura and Bussey's misunderstandings of cognitive theorists' views on socialization agents, sociocultural influences, agency, and motivation created theoretical rifts where none exist.
Carol Lynn Martin - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Early Adolescent Gender Development: The Differential Effects of Felt Pressure from Parents, Peers, and the Self
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 2019Co-Authors: Rachel E. Cook, Carol Lynn Martin, Matthew G. Nielson, Dawn DelayAbstract:Most empirical research examining youth’s Gender Development measures felt pressure to conform to Gender norms using a composite value of felt pressure from multiple sources; however, because of the different socialization processes at work from parents, peers, and the self, analyzing these sources separately may elucidate different effects on Gender Development. Thus, the purpose of this study was to (a) differentiate the effects of perceived Gender socialization pressure from parents, peers, and the self on early adolescents’ own- and other-Gender typicality, and (b) to examine whether a bi-directional relation between Gender typicality and felt pressure is evident when distinguished across sources. With a sample of 212 early adolescents (54% girls; Mage = 11.11 years), felt pressure was found to be distinguishable by socialization source: adolescents’ perceptions of parents, peers, and their own pressures were distinct, and each contributed differently to Gender Development. Pressure from self and peers were both found to relate concurrently to typicality (i.e., positively to own-Gender typicality, negatively to other-Gender typicality); only pressure from the self was found to have a longitudinal effect on adolescents’ developing Gender identity (i.e., an increase in own-Gender typicality). Interestingly, other-Gender typicality did not elicit higher felt pressure; in fact, it was negatively related to later felt pressure from the self, suggesting that adolescents may be developing self-acceptance of their levels of Gender typicality. The findings suggest that the Development of Gender identity may involve a complex interplay with various sources of socialization pressures (e.g., parent, peers, self), and may further shift in relation to the adolescent’s own levels of Gender typicality.
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Gender Development research in sex roles historical trends and future directions
Sex Roles, 2011Co-Authors: Kristina M Zosuls, Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N Ruble, Cindy Faith Miller, Richard A FabesAbstract:The late 1960s through the 1970s marked an important turning point in the field of Gender research, including theory and research in Gender Development. The establishment of Sex Roles in 1975 as a forum for this research represented an important milestone in the field. In this article, we celebrate the 35th anniversary of Sex Roles and, in particular, its contributions to the field of research on children’s and adolescents’ Gender Development. We examine the trends in research on Gender Development published in Sex Roles since its inception and use this analysis as a vehicle for exploring how the field has grown and evolved over the past few decades. We begin with a brief review of the history of this field of research since 1975. Then, we present a descriptive assessment of articles published on Gender Development in Sex Roles over time, and link this assessment to general trends that have occurred in the study of Gender Development over the past 35 years. We conclude with a discussion of future directions for the field of Gender Development. In particular, we highlight areas in which the journal could play a role in promoting more diversity in topics, methods, and ages employed in Gender Development research.
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patterns of Gender Development
Annual Review of Psychology, 2010Co-Authors: Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N RubleAbstract:A comprehensive theory of Gender Development must describe and explain long-term Developmental patterning and changes and how Gender is experienced in the short term. This review considers multiple views on Gender patterning, illustrated with contemporary research. First, because Developmental research involves understanding normative patterns of change with age, several theoretically important topics illustrate Gender Development: how children come to recognize Gender distinctions and understand stereotypes, and the emergence of prejudice and sexism. Second, Developmental researchers study the stability of individual differences over time, which elucidates Developmental processes. We review stability in two domains—sex segregation and activities/interests. Finally, a new approach advances understanding of Developmental patterns, based on dynamic systems theory. Dynamic systems theory is a metatheoretical framework for studying stability and change, which developed from the study of complex and nonlinear systems in physics and mathematics. Some major features and examples show how dynamic approaches have been and could be applied in studying Gender Development.
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Recognizing the Centrality of Gender Identity and Stereotype Knowledge in Gender Development and Moving Toward Theoretical Integration: Reply to Bandura and Bussey (2004).
Psychological Bulletin, 2004Co-Authors: Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N Ruble, Joel SzkrybaloAbstract:Abstract Most of the critique in the A. Bandura and K. Bussey (see record 2004-18097-001) commentary is a misunderstanding or misrepresentation of the points made by C. L. Martin, D. N. Ruble, and J. Szkrybalo in their 2002 Psychological Bulletin article (see record 2002-18663-003). First, Martin et al. never intended to present a comprehensive theory; instead, it was a review of 2 different cognitive approaches to Gender Development. Second, there is no time line test that has been failed; instead, Gender cognitions may occur earlier than initially believed. Third, Bandura and Bussey dismissed central Gender cognitions-Gender identity and Gender stereotype knowledge-despite considerable evidence in their support. Fourth, Bandura and Bussey never addressed the gaps and ambiguities inherent in their theory that Martin et al. questioned in their earlier article. Finally, Bandura and Bussey's misunderstandings of cognitive theorists' views on socialization agents, sociocultural influences, agency, and motivation created theoretical rifts where none exist.
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children s search for Gender cues cognitive perspectives on Gender Development
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2004Co-Authors: Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N RubleAbstract:Young children search for cues about Gender—who should or should not do a particular activity, who can play with whom, and why girls and boys are different. From a vast array of Gendered cues in their social worlds, children quickly form an impressive constellation of Gender cognitions, including Gender self-conceptions (Gender identity) and Gender stereotypes. Cognitive perspectives on Gender Development (i.e., cognitive Developmental theory and Gender-schema theory) assume that children actively search for ways to make sense of the social world that surrounds them. Gender identity develops as children realize that they belong to one Gender group, and the consequences include increased motivation to be similar to other members of their group, preferences for members of their own group, selective attention to and memory for information relevant to their own sex, and increased interest in activities relevant to their own sex. Cognitive perspectives have been influential in increasing understanding of how c...
Melissa Hines - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Oxford Scholarship Online - The Integrative Psychobiology of Early Gender Development
Oxford Scholarship Online, 2018Co-Authors: Melissa HinesAbstract:This chapter describes the role of early testosterone exposure in Gender Development. It discusses these hormonal influences and how they relate to genetic influences, socialization by others, and self-socialization, in shaping Gender Development. To illustrate these influences, it focuses primarily on childhood play behavior. This focus is used because childhood play behavior shows large differences between the sex categories boy and girl to which children are assigned at birth. Also, childhood play behavior has been studied extensively, providing perhaps the best example of how a Gender-related behavior can be influenced by a range of factors at levels of organization from the cellular to the societal working in concert over time.
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20 Gendered Development
Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, 2015Co-Authors: Melissa HinesAbstract:How does human behavior come to be Gendered, and how do Gendered behaviors change or remain stable over time? Although men and women, as well as girls and boys, are largely similar psychologically and behaviorally, there are some areas of Gender difference. These include Gender identity; sexual orientation; childhood play behaviors, such as toy, playmate, and activity preferences; personality characteristics, such as aggression and empathy; and some specific spatial, mathematical, and verbal abilities. The incidence of many psychiatric disorders also differs by sex. These Gender differences appear to result from numerous factors and their interactions. These include genetic information on the sex chromosomes; concentrations of gonadal steroids, particularly testosterone, before and shortly after birth; socialization by parents, peers, teachers, and strangers; and cognitive Developmental processes. Gender identity also is a mechanism for acquiring Gendered behavior; based on this identity, children self-socialize Gendered behavior. These factors have been shown to act individually to influence Gendered outcomes. They are also likely to interact with one another to shape Gender Development, but little research has investigated these interactions. An understanding of Gendered Development is important for addressing differences between the sexes in social roles and economic status, and should also be relevant to understanding and ameliorating psychiatric disorders that differ by Gender. A complete understanding will probably require Developmental systems approaches to understanding change and stability over time, but, thus far, such approaches have been uncommon. Keywords: aggression; androgen; cognition; cognitive; Developmental systems; disorders of sex Development; empathy; finger ratio; Gender; Gender Development; Gender difference; Gender identity; personality; sex difference; sexual orientation; socialization; testosterone; toy preference; 2D:4D
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early androgen exposure and human Gender Development
Biology of Sex Differences, 2015Co-Authors: Melissa Hines, Mihaela Constantinescu, Debra SpencerAbstract:During early Development, testosterone plays an important role in sexual differentiation of the mammalian brain and has enduring influences on behavior. Testosterone exerts these influences at times when the testes are active, as evidenced by higher concentrations of testosterone in developing male than in developing female animals. This article critically reviews the available evidence regarding influences of testosterone on human Gender-related Development. In humans, testosterone is elevated in males from about weeks 8 to 24 of gestation and then again during early postnatal Development. Individuals exposed to atypical concentrations of testosterone or other androgenic hormones prenatally, for example, because of genetic conditions or because their mothers were prescribed hormones during pregnancy, have been consistently found to show increased male-typical juvenile play behavior, alterations in sexual orientation and Gender identity (the sense of self as male or female), and increased tendencies to engage in physically aggressive behavior. Studies of other behavioral outcomes following dramatic androgen abnormality prenatally are either too small in their numbers or too inconsistent in their results, to provide similarly conclusive evidence. Studies relating normal variability in testosterone prenatally to subsequent Gender-related behavior have produced largely inconsistent results or have yet to be independently replicated. For studies of prenatal exposures in typically developing individuals, testosterone has been measured in single samples of maternal blood or amniotic fluid. These techniques may not be sufficiently powerful to consistently detect influences of testosterone on behavior, particularly in the relatively small samples that have generally been studied. The postnatal surge in testosterone in male infants, sometimes called mini-puberty, may provide a more accessible opportunity for measuring early androgen exposure during typical Development. This approach has recently begun to be used, with some promising results relating testosterone during the first few months of postnatal life to later Gender-typical play behavior. In replicating and extending these findings, it may be important to assess testosterone when it is maximal (months 1 to 2 postnatal) and to take advantage of the increased reliability afforded by repeated sampling.
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Gender Development and the human brain
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 2011Co-Authors: Melissa HinesAbstract:Convincing evidence indicates that prenatal exposure to the gonadal hormone, testosterone, influences the Development of children's sex-typical toy and activity interests. In addition, growing evidence shows that testosterone exposure contributes similarly to the Development of other human behaviors that show sex differences, including sexual orientation, core Gender identity, and some, though not all, sex-related cognitive and personality characteristics. In addition to these prenatal hormonal influences, early infancy and puberty may provide additional critical periods when hormones influence human neurobehavioral organization. Sex-linked genes could also contribute to human Gender Development, and most sex-related characteristics are influenced by socialization and other aspects of postnatal experience, as well. Neural mechanisms underlying the influences of gonadal hormones on human behavior are beginning to be identified. Although the neural mechanisms underlying experiential influences remain largel...
Sheri A. Berenbaum - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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from genes to behavior through sex hormones and socialization the example of Gender Development
Twin Research and Human Genetics, 2018Co-Authors: Sheri A. Berenbaum, Adriene M BeltzAbstract:Irving Gottesman is known primarily for his work in psychopathology, but he also had a long-standing interest in understanding psychological Development generally (typical and atypical). Through his mentorship, he also influenced work in Gender Development. Characteristics related to sex and Gender are ideally suited to study the interplay of genes and environment across Development. We discuss how Gender Development is influenced by gonadal hormones present during early life, but not in a simple way. We describe some of the challenges and opportunities to extend our understanding of the complexity of Gender Development. Throughout, we consider the kinds of questions Gottesman would likely have asked and emphasize his influence on our work.
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Beyond Pink and Blue: The Complexity of Early Androgen Effects on Gender Development
Child Development Perspectives, 2017Co-Authors: Sheri A. BerenbaumAbstract:Why do girls and women differ from boys and men? Gender Development is typically considered to result from socialization, but sex hormones present during sensitive periods of Development, particularly prenatal androgens, play an important role. Data from natural experiments, especially from females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, show the complexity of the effects of androgens on behavior: Prenatal androgens apparently have large effects on interests and engagement in Gendered activities; moderate effects on spatial abilities; and relatively small or no effects on Gender identity, Gender cognitions, and Gendered peer involvement. These differential effects provide an opportunity to move beyond identifying sources of variation in behavior to understanding Developmental processes. These processes include links among Gendered characteristics, psychological and neural mechanisms underlying Development, and the joint effects of biological predispositions and social experiences.
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how early hormones shape Gender Development
Current opinion in behavioral sciences, 2016Co-Authors: Sheri A. Berenbaum, Adriene M BeltzAbstract:Many important psychological characteristics show sex differences, and are influenced by sex hormones at different Developmental periods. We focus on the role of sex hormones in early Development, particularly the differential effects of prenatal androgens on aspects of Gender Development. Increasing evidence confirms that prenatal androgens have facilitative effects on male-typed activity interests and engagement (including child toy preferences and adult careers), and spatial abilities, but relatively minimal effects on Gender identity. Recent emphasis has been directed to the psychological mechanisms underlying these effects (including sex differences in propulsive movement, and androgen effects on interest in people vs things), and neural substrates of androgen effects (including regional brain volumes, and neural responses to mental rotation, sexually arousing stimuli, emotion, and reward). Ongoing and planned work is focused on understanding the ways in which hormones act jointly with the social environment across time to produce varying trajectories of Gender Development, and clarifying mechanisms by which androgens affect behaviors. Such work will be facilitated by applying lessons from other species, and by expanding methodology. Understanding hormonal influences on Gender Development enhances knowledge of psychological Development generally, and has important implications for basic and applied questions, including sex differences in psychopathology, women's underrepresentation in science and math, and clinical care of individuals with variations in Gender expression.
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Gender Development and sexuality in disorders of sex Development.
Hormone and Metabolic Research, 2015Co-Authors: Sheri A. Berenbaum, Heino F. L. Meyer-bahlburgAbstract:Understanding psychological Development in individuals with disorders of sex Development (DSD) is important for optimizing their clinical care and for identifying paths to competence and health in all individuals. In this paper, we focus on psychological outcomes likely to be influenced by processes of physical sexual differentiation that may be atypical in DSD, particularly characteristics related to being male or female (those that show sex differences in the general population, Gender identity, and sexuality). We review evidence suggesting that (a) early androgens facilitate several aspects of male-typed behavior, with large effects on activity interests, and moderate effects on some social and personal behaviors (including sexual orientation) and spatial ability; (b) Gender dysphoria and Gender change occur more frequently in individuals with DSD than in the general population, with rates varying in relation to syndrome, initial Gender assignment, and medical treatment; and (c) sexual behavior may be affected by DSD through several paths related to the condition and treatment, including reduced fertility, physical problems associated with genital ambiguity, social stigmatization, and hormonal variations. We also consider limitations to current work and challenges to studying Gender and sexuality in DSD. We conclude with suggestions for a research agenda and a proposed research framework.
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Handbook of Adolescent Psychology - Gender Development in Adolescence
Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, 2009Co-Authors: Nancy L. Galambos, Sheri A. Berenbaum, Susan M. MchaleAbstract:Gender Development in Adolescence Age-Related Trends in Gender Differentiation Across Adolescence The Content of Gender Development: Values Regarding Gender Influences on Gender Development Cognitive Influences Socialization Influences Influences on Gender Development: Summary Summary and Integration Understanding Gender Development in Adolescence Keywords: Gender Development; Gender differences; Gender intensification; Gender socialization; Gender-typing
Joel Szkrybalo - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Recognizing the Centrality of Gender Identity and Stereotype Knowledge in Gender Development and Moving Toward Theoretical Integration: Reply to Bandura and Bussey (2004).
Psychological Bulletin, 2004Co-Authors: Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N Ruble, Joel SzkrybaloAbstract:Abstract Most of the critique in the A. Bandura and K. Bussey (see record 2004-18097-001) commentary is a misunderstanding or misrepresentation of the points made by C. L. Martin, D. N. Ruble, and J. Szkrybalo in their 2002 Psychological Bulletin article (see record 2002-18663-003). First, Martin et al. never intended to present a comprehensive theory; instead, it was a review of 2 different cognitive approaches to Gender Development. Second, there is no time line test that has been failed; instead, Gender cognitions may occur earlier than initially believed. Third, Bandura and Bussey dismissed central Gender cognitions-Gender identity and Gender stereotype knowledge-despite considerable evidence in their support. Fourth, Bandura and Bussey never addressed the gaps and ambiguities inherent in their theory that Martin et al. questioned in their earlier article. Finally, Bandura and Bussey's misunderstandings of cognitive theorists' views on socialization agents, sociocultural influences, agency, and motivation created theoretical rifts where none exist.
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cognitive theories of early Gender Development
Psychological Bulletin, 2002Co-Authors: Carol Lynn Martin, Diane N Ruble, Joel SzkrybaloAbstract:How individuals develop a “Gendered” self and Gender-typed differentiation has intrigued researchers of human behavior for as long as social Development has been a field of empirical study. Initially, observations of clear Gender typing in children as young as 5 years old led researchers to examine how socialization processes in the home might contribute to this early acquisition of Gender-linked behavior (e.g., Sears, Maccoby, & Levin, 1957). In 1966, several important theories of Gender Development, including Kohlberg’s cognitive– Developmental approach and Mischel’s social learning approach, were outlined in Maccoby’s book on the Development of sex differences. In the mid-1970s, a groundbreaking book by Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) broadened the discussion about the etiology of sex differences and Gender typing and questioned the significance of socialization processes, thereby invigorating the field and generating considerable controversy. In the 1980s, Huston (1983, 1985) called for researchers to develop a more integrative, comprehensive approach to the study of Gender Development. This integration was to include consideration of the many facets of Gender that needed investigation, such as concepts, identity, preferences, and behavior, as well as a wide variety of factors that influence the Development of these facets, including biology, cognitions, and social influences. This idea resonated with Gender researchers and has been a driving force in the field ever since, leading to an expansion of theoretical approaches and the inclusion of multiple measures in empirical studies. Recently, Bussey and Bandura (1999) presented a social– cognitive theory (SCT) of Gender Development and differentiation. This theory represents a particular view of how Gender-related behavior is acquired and maintained, based on contemporary social learning theory (Bandura, 1986). Because the theory has now integrated cognitive constructs and makes reference to biological underpinnings and sociostructural factors, Bussey and Bandura described their theory as comprehensive and integrative, consistent with Huston’s (1983) proposal, and implied that other theories are invalid and/or no longer necessary. In particular, they were highly critical of previous cognitive approaches to early Gender Development and proposed that children’s cognitive structures, namely Gender identity and stereotype knowledge, play a minor role relative to social forces. One goal of the present article is to rebut these claims. A second goal is to present a contemporary account of the role of cognitive structures in early Gender Development. We begin with a brief history of the debate between cognitive and social learning theories of Gender Development. We then examine the contributions and limitations of Bussey and Bandura’s (1999) recent account of Gender Development. Next, we review the current status of what have historically been the two major cognitive accounts of Gender Development: cognitive– Developmental theory and Gender schema theory. We then evaluate the empirical evidence relevant to the major controversies surrounding these views. Given the centrality of early Gender Development to the cognitive perspective, we then introduce the latest evidence on how infants and toddlers develop the abilities to discriminate the sexes and learn the attributes correlated with sex. Finally, we provide an overview of the essence of cognitive approaches and point to directions for future research.