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Anders Lönnermark - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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tunnel Fire tests
2015Co-Authors: Haukur Ingason, Anders LönnermarkAbstract:This chapter gives a detailed overview of numerous Large-Scale Fire tests carried out in different types of tunnels. Some important model Scale tunnel Fire tests are also included. The information given, sets the level of knowledge from this type of tunnel Fire testing. The reason for doing tests is to obtain new knowledge about different phenomena. Although the focus is on Large-Scale testing, the fundamental knowledge is obtained both from Large-Scale and intermediate size tunnel testing as well as laboratory testing (For example, Scale models). The aim is usually to investigate some specific problems such as influence of different ventilation systems on smoke and temperature distribution along the tunnel, the Fire development in different type of vehicles, and the effect of heat exposure on the integrity and strength of the tunnel construction.
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runehamar tunnel Fire tests
Fire Safety Journal, 2015Co-Authors: Haukur Ingason, Anders LönnermarkAbstract:Five Large-Scale Fire tests, including one pool Fire test and four HGV mock-up Fire tests, were carried out in the Runehamar tunnel in Norway in year 2003. Detailed information about these tests is ...
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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Quantified in Large-Scale Fire Experiments
Fire Technology, 2012Co-Authors: Per Blomqvist, Margaret Simonson Mcnamee, Petra Andersson, Anders LönnermarkAbstract:A number of Large-Scale Fire experiments with detailed quantitative analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) including PAH congener distribution have been conducted by SP. This data is reviewed here and is further assessed with regard to toxicity applying a Toxic Equivalency Factor (TEF) model for estimation of cancer potential. The PAH yield data from the Large-Scale Fire experiments is also compared to emission factors from other combustion sources. The study shows that full-Scale Fire experiments with different products exhibit a Large variation in total PAH yields. Fires with products containing flame retardants were shown to produce the highest yields and generally a more toxic mixture of PAHs than Fires with non-flame retarded products. The distribution of individual PAH congeners is generally quantitatively dominated by low molecular weight PAHs, whereas a small number of medium to high molecular weight PAHs are most important in determining the toxicity of the PAH mixture. The Large-Scale Fire experiments indicate that Fires normally produce orders of magnitudes higher yields compared to, e.g. modern residential combustion devices. The relative distribution of individual PAHs, which determines the toxicity of the PAH mix, is similar for the Fires and open burning data studied, in that benzo(a)pyrene and dibenz(a,h)anthracene dominate the toxicity of the mix as a whole.
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pulsations during Large Scale Fire tests in the runehamar tunnel
Fire Safety Journal, 2006Co-Authors: Anders Lönnermark, Bror Persson, Haukur IngasonAbstract:Abstract Four Large-Scale Fire tests have been carried out with heavy goods vehicle (HGV) cargos in the Runehamar tunnel in Norway. During two of the Fire tests, Large pulsations of the gas flow inside the tunnel were observed. These pulsations were registered only when the measured HRR was higher than 125–135 MW. Two different periods of pulsations were registered, short periods of approximately 4 s and longer periods of approximately 18 s. In the article, the pulsations are presented and explanations are given, using a frequency response analysis based on an impedance approach. Using this approach, the authors were able to find the intrinsic resonances of the system, which were close to the periods of 4 and 18 s found in the experiments. Several factors can affect the pulsations, but the calculations show that the oscillation periods are properties of the system. The analyses show further that at certain frequencies (close to those found during the tests), a small disturbance in the flow can create Large amplitudes in the pressure. It is proposed that this phenomenon should be studied in conjunction with future full Scale tunnel tests.
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Fire spread and flame length in Large Scale tunnel Fires
Fire Technology, 2006Co-Authors: Anders Lönnermark, Haukur IngasonAbstract:An analysis of Fire spread during four Large-Scale Fire tests that were performed in the Runehamar tunnel in Norway is presented. The Fire loads consisted of mock-ups simulating a Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV) trailer. The Fire spread downstream of the HGV trailer mock-ups was studied, both to Large targets with the same type of commodities as used in the trailer mock-up for each tests, and to small pieces of wood and plastic poles placed at different distances from the Fire. The purpose was to determine a critical distance for Fire spread between HGV trailers for different heat release rate histories. The time to ignition of a second object and Fire spreading distances were estimated from post-visual observations and temperature measurements. Correlations for flame length were developed from the experimental results. Since the average temperature of the cross-section often is used to estimate Fire spread, results from a model for the average temperature were compared with the measured temperatures.
Haukur Ingason - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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tunnel Fire tests
2015Co-Authors: Haukur Ingason, Anders LönnermarkAbstract:This chapter gives a detailed overview of numerous Large-Scale Fire tests carried out in different types of tunnels. Some important model Scale tunnel Fire tests are also included. The information given, sets the level of knowledge from this type of tunnel Fire testing. The reason for doing tests is to obtain new knowledge about different phenomena. Although the focus is on Large-Scale testing, the fundamental knowledge is obtained both from Large-Scale and intermediate size tunnel testing as well as laboratory testing (For example, Scale models). The aim is usually to investigate some specific problems such as influence of different ventilation systems on smoke and temperature distribution along the tunnel, the Fire development in different type of vehicles, and the effect of heat exposure on the integrity and strength of the tunnel construction.
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runehamar tunnel Fire tests
Fire Safety Journal, 2015Co-Authors: Haukur Ingason, Anders LönnermarkAbstract:Five Large-Scale Fire tests, including one pool Fire test and four HGV mock-up Fire tests, were carried out in the Runehamar tunnel in Norway in year 2003. Detailed information about these tests is ...
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pulsations during Large Scale Fire tests in the runehamar tunnel
Fire Safety Journal, 2006Co-Authors: Anders Lönnermark, Bror Persson, Haukur IngasonAbstract:Abstract Four Large-Scale Fire tests have been carried out with heavy goods vehicle (HGV) cargos in the Runehamar tunnel in Norway. During two of the Fire tests, Large pulsations of the gas flow inside the tunnel were observed. These pulsations were registered only when the measured HRR was higher than 125–135 MW. Two different periods of pulsations were registered, short periods of approximately 4 s and longer periods of approximately 18 s. In the article, the pulsations are presented and explanations are given, using a frequency response analysis based on an impedance approach. Using this approach, the authors were able to find the intrinsic resonances of the system, which were close to the periods of 4 and 18 s found in the experiments. Several factors can affect the pulsations, but the calculations show that the oscillation periods are properties of the system. The analyses show further that at certain frequencies (close to those found during the tests), a small disturbance in the flow can create Large amplitudes in the pressure. It is proposed that this phenomenon should be studied in conjunction with future full Scale tunnel tests.
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Fire spread and flame length in Large Scale tunnel Fires
Fire Technology, 2006Co-Authors: Anders Lönnermark, Haukur IngasonAbstract:An analysis of Fire spread during four Large-Scale Fire tests that were performed in the Runehamar tunnel in Norway is presented. The Fire loads consisted of mock-ups simulating a Heavy Goods Vehicle (HGV) trailer. The Fire spread downstream of the HGV trailer mock-ups was studied, both to Large targets with the same type of commodities as used in the trailer mock-up for each tests, and to small pieces of wood and plastic poles placed at different distances from the Fire. The purpose was to determine a critical distance for Fire spread between HGV trailers for different heat release rate histories. The time to ignition of a second object and Fire spreading distances were estimated from post-visual observations and temperature measurements. Correlations for flame length were developed from the experimental results. Since the average temperature of the cross-section often is used to estimate Fire spread, results from a model for the average temperature were compared with the measured temperatures.
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gas temperatures in heavy goods vehicle Fires in tunnels
Fire Safety Journal, 2005Co-Authors: Anders Lönnermark, Haukur IngasonAbstract:Abstract Large-Scale Fire tests were carried out with heavy goods vehicle (HGV) cargos in the Runehamar tunnel in Norway. The tunnel is a decommissioned, two-way-asphalted road tunnel that is 1600 m long, 6 m high and 9 m wide, with a slope varying between 0.5% uphill and 1% downhill. In total four tests were performed with Fire in an HGV set-up and a longitudinal ventilation flow of approximately 3 m/s. In three tests, mixtures of different cellulose and plastic materials were used; in the fourth test a commodity consisting of furniture and fixtures was used. In all tests the mass ratio was approximately 82% cellulose and 18% plastic. A polyester tarpaulin covered the cargo. One purpose of the Large-Scale tests was to obtain new relevant gas temperature-time data from Large-Scale HGV Fires in tunnels. There is presently a lack of such information for road tunnels. The maximum heat release rates produced by the four different Fire loads varied between 66 and 202 MW resulting in maximum gas temperatures at the ceiling ranging between 1281 and 1365 °C. A comparison with literature values shows that the gas temperatures obtained here are uniformly higher than those obtained in other similar Large-Scale test series conducted using solid materials. A mathematical correlation of a temperature–time curve is given and this is the best representation of the measured temperature and a combination of frequently used temperature curves for tunnels (the HC curve and the RWS curve).
Cristian Maluk - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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a thin skin calorimeter tsc for quantifying irradiation during Large Scale Fire testing
International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 2017Co-Authors: Cristian Maluk, Michal Krajcovic, Juan P Hidalgo, Adam Cowlard, Cecilia Abecassisempis, Jose L ToreroAbstract:This paper details a novel method for quantifying irradiation (incident radiant heat flux) at the exposed surface of solid elements during Large-Scale Fire testing. Within the scope of the work presented herein, a type of Thin Skin Calorimeter (TSC) was developed intending for a practical, low cost device enabling the cost-effective mass production required for characterising the thermal boundary conditions during multiple Large-Scale Fire tests. The technical description of the TSC design and a formulation of the proposed calibration technique are presented. This methodology allows for the quantification of irradiation by means of an a posteriori analysis based on a temperature measurement from the TSC, a temperature measurement of the gas-phase in the vicinity of the TSC and a correction factor defined during a pre-test calibration process. The proposed calibration methodology is designed to account for uncertainties inherent to the simplicity of the irradiation measurement technique, therefore not requiring precise information regarding material thermal and optical properties. This methodology is designed and presented so as to enable adaption of the technique to meet the specific requirements of other experimental setups. This is conveyed by means of an example detailing the design and calibration of a device designed for a series of Large-Scale experiments as part of the ‘Real Fires for the Safe Design of Tall Buildings’ project.
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a heat transfer rate inducing system h tris test method
Fire Safety Journal, 2016Co-Authors: Cristian Maluk, Luke Bisby, Michal Krajcovic, Jose L ToreroAbstract:A novel Fire testing method, named the Heat-Transfer Rate Inducing System (H-TRIS), is presented and described in this paper. The method directly controls the thermal boundary conditions imposed on a test specimen by controlling a specified time-history of incident radiant heat flux at its exposed surface. Accounting for the absorptivity and thermal losses at the exposed surface of the test specimen, H-TRIS can be programmed to control the net heat flux at the exposed surface; thus controlling the in-depth time dependent temperature distributions within the test specimen. H-TRIS can be used for imposing a wide range of time-histories of incident radiant heat flux (e.g. constant, linear, stepped), or in-depth time dependent temperature distributions (i.e. specified thermal gradients). Notably, this enables simulation of thermal boundary conditions experienced by materials or structures exposed to any source of heat – during a conventional Fire test (e.g. standard furnace test), a Large-Scale Fire test, a real Fire, or some other thermal boundary conditions calculated using a Fire model (e.g. zone or computational fluid dynamics model). H-TRIS enables complementary experimental studies with excellent repeatability at comparatively low economic and temporal costs relative to traditional furnace test methods, thus permitting multiple repeat tests and statistical studies of response to heating. Application of H-TRIS within a research project studying heat-induced concrete spalling is briefly presented and discussed, to illustrate the significance and novelty of the new Fire testing method.
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explosive concrete spalling during Large Scale Fire resistance test
9th International Conference on Structures in Fire (SiF), 2016Co-Authors: Cristian Maluk, Luke Bisby, Giovanni P TerrasiAbstract:This paper presents a comprehensive investigation of explosive heat-induced spalling observed during a set of Large-Scale Fire resistance tests (or standard furnace tests) on prestressed concrete slabs. The study, based on data from Large-Scale tests, examines the influence of numerous design parameters in the occurrence of spalling (age of concrete, inclusion of polypropylene fibres, depth of the slab, and prestressing level). Furthermore, a careful thermal analysis of the tested slabs is presented; a comparison of in-depth temperature distributions inside concrete slabs shows that spalling occurred for slabs with more rapid in-depth temperature increase. The analysis presented herein shows that the scatter of in-depth temperature increase experienced by concrete slabs tested simultaneously has a substantial influence in the occurrence of heat-induced concrete spalling.
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Large Scale structural Fire testing how did we get here where are we and where are we going
15th International Conference on Experimental Mechanics, 2012Co-Authors: John Gales, Cristian Maluk, Luke BisbyAbstract:A conference paper which considers research gaps in Fire safety engineering and structures. The paper emphasis is on Large Scale Fire tests after 1980, and origins of the standard Fire test. This open access version contains grammatical fixes throughout the text as well as table headers.
Jose L Torero - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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a thin skin calorimeter tsc for quantifying irradiation during Large Scale Fire testing
International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 2017Co-Authors: Cristian Maluk, Michal Krajcovic, Juan P Hidalgo, Adam Cowlard, Cecilia Abecassisempis, Jose L ToreroAbstract:This paper details a novel method for quantifying irradiation (incident radiant heat flux) at the exposed surface of solid elements during Large-Scale Fire testing. Within the scope of the work presented herein, a type of Thin Skin Calorimeter (TSC) was developed intending for a practical, low cost device enabling the cost-effective mass production required for characterising the thermal boundary conditions during multiple Large-Scale Fire tests. The technical description of the TSC design and a formulation of the proposed calibration technique are presented. This methodology allows for the quantification of irradiation by means of an a posteriori analysis based on a temperature measurement from the TSC, a temperature measurement of the gas-phase in the vicinity of the TSC and a correction factor defined during a pre-test calibration process. The proposed calibration methodology is designed to account for uncertainties inherent to the simplicity of the irradiation measurement technique, therefore not requiring precise information regarding material thermal and optical properties. This methodology is designed and presented so as to enable adaption of the technique to meet the specific requirements of other experimental setups. This is conveyed by means of an example detailing the design and calibration of a device designed for a series of Large-Scale experiments as part of the ‘Real Fires for the Safe Design of Tall Buildings’ project.
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a heat transfer rate inducing system h tris test method
Fire Safety Journal, 2016Co-Authors: Cristian Maluk, Luke Bisby, Michal Krajcovic, Jose L ToreroAbstract:A novel Fire testing method, named the Heat-Transfer Rate Inducing System (H-TRIS), is presented and described in this paper. The method directly controls the thermal boundary conditions imposed on a test specimen by controlling a specified time-history of incident radiant heat flux at its exposed surface. Accounting for the absorptivity and thermal losses at the exposed surface of the test specimen, H-TRIS can be programmed to control the net heat flux at the exposed surface; thus controlling the in-depth time dependent temperature distributions within the test specimen. H-TRIS can be used for imposing a wide range of time-histories of incident radiant heat flux (e.g. constant, linear, stepped), or in-depth time dependent temperature distributions (i.e. specified thermal gradients). Notably, this enables simulation of thermal boundary conditions experienced by materials or structures exposed to any source of heat – during a conventional Fire test (e.g. standard furnace test), a Large-Scale Fire test, a real Fire, or some other thermal boundary conditions calculated using a Fire model (e.g. zone or computational fluid dynamics model). H-TRIS enables complementary experimental studies with excellent repeatability at comparatively low economic and temporal costs relative to traditional furnace test methods, thus permitting multiple repeat tests and statistical studies of response to heating. Application of H-TRIS within a research project studying heat-induced concrete spalling is briefly presented and discussed, to illustrate the significance and novelty of the new Fire testing method.
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bre Large compartment Fire tests characterising post flashover Fires for model validation
Fire Safety Journal, 2007Co-Authors: Stephen Welch, Allan Jowsey, Susan Deeny, Richard Morgan, Jose L ToreroAbstract:Reliable and comprehensive measurement data from Large-Scale Fire tests are needed for validation of computer Fire models, but is subject to various uncertainties, including radiation errors in temperature measurement. Here, a simple method for post-processing thermocouple data is demonstrated, within the scope of a series of Large-Scale Fire tests, in order to establish a well characterised dataset of physical parameter values which can be used with confidence in model validation. Sensitivity analyses reveal the relationship of the correction uncertainty to the assumed optical properties and the thermocouple distribution. The analysis also facilitates the generation of maps of an equivalent radiative flux within the Fire compartment, a quantity which usefully characterises the thermal exposures of structural components. Large spatial and temporal variations are found, with regions of most severe exposures not being collocated with the peak gas temperatures; this picture is at variance with the assumption of uniform heating conditions often adopted for post-flashover Fires.
Serge Bourbigot - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Fractal conceptualization of intumescent Fire barriers, toward simulations of virtual morphologies
Scientific Reports, 2019Co-Authors: Gizem Okyay, Anil D. Naik, Fabienne Samyn, Maude Jimenez, Serge BourbigotAbstract:By limiting the heat spread during a Fire hazard, intumescent coatings are important components of passive protection systems. They swell due to heat induced reactions of micro constituents and are transformed into carbonaceous porous-like media, known as intumescent chars. Their multiScale inner structures, key elements of performance, are costly to predict by recurrent and Large Scale Fire testing while numerical simulations are challenging due to complex kinetics. Hence, we propose a novel approach using the fractal theory and the random nature of events to conceptualize the coating expansion. Experimental specimens were obtained from Fire protective coatings exposed to bench Scale hydrocarbon Fire. Mass fractals were evidenced in the slices of 3D sample volumes reconstructed from X-ray microtomography. Consequently, geometrical building blocks were simulated by random walk, active walk, aggregation-like and site percolation: physical-chemical modes of action were inherent in the attribution of the randomness. It is a first demonstration to conceptualize different types of intumescent actions by a generalized approach with dimensionless parameters at multiScale, thus eliminating the simulation of complex kinetics to obtain a realistic morphology. Also, fractal results brought new evidence to former chemical analyses on Fire test residues trying to explain the kinetics of expansion. Expected outcomes are to predict virtually the reaction of Fire protective systems hence to speed-up the assessment of Fire performance through computed properties of virtual volumes.
