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Masayuki Yoshikawa - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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biofunctional effects of thiohemiaminal type dimeric sesquiterpene alkaloids from Nuphar plants
Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 2019Co-Authors: Hisashi Matsuda, Seikou Nakamura, Souichi Nakashima, Masashi Fukaya, Masayuki YoshikawaAbstract:: Dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids from the rhizomes of Nuphar pumilum exhibited immunosuppressive effects using a sheep erythrocyte plaque forming cell (PFC) assay, as well as an anti-metastasis effect, and rapid apoptosis-inducing effects in tumor cell lines. In particular, dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids with a hydroxy group (6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6,6'-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B) showed substantial effects, whereas dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids lacking the hydroxy group (thiobiNupharidine, thionuphlutine B, 6'-hydroxythionuphlutine B, neothiobiNupharidine, thionuphlutine B β-sulfoxide, neothiobiNupharidine β-sulfoxide) and monomeric sesquiterpene alkaloids (Nupharidine, 7-epideoxyNupharidine, Nupharolutine) showed weak activity. In this review, we summarize our studies of the biofunctional effects of these alkaloids.
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Nuphar alkaloids with immediately apoptosis inducing activity from Nuphar pumilum and their structural requirements for the activity
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 2006Co-Authors: Hisashi Matsuda, Kazutoshi Yoshida, Katsutoshi Miyagawa, Yumiko Nemoto, Yasunobu Asao, Masayuki YoshikawaAbstract:Abstract The methanolic extract and its alkaloid fraction from the rhizomes of Nuphar pumilum showed cytotoxic effects on human leukemia cell (U937), mouse melanoma cell (B16F10), and human fibroblast (HT1080). Dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids with the 6-hydroxyl group (6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6,6′-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B) showed substantial cytotoxic activity at a concentration of 10 μM, but dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids lacking the 6-hydroxyl group (thiobiNupharidine, thionuphlutine B, 6′-hydroxythionuphlutine B, neothiobiNupharidine, thionuphlutine B β-sulfoxide, and neothiobiNupharidine β-sulfoxide) and monomeric sesquiterpene alkaloids (Nupharidine, 7-epideoxyNupharidine, and Nupharolutine) showed weak activity. Next, apoptosis-inducing activity of a principal active constituent, 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, on U937 was examined using morphological observation and DNA fragmentation assay (TUNEL method). Apoptosis of U937 was immediately observed within 1 h after treatment of 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine at 2.5–10 μM.
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dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids with potent immunosuppressive activity from the rhizome of Nuphar pumilum structural requirements of Nuphar alkaloids for immunosuppressive activity
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, 2001Co-Authors: Hisashi Matsuda, Hiroshi Shimoda, Masayuki YoshikawaAbstract:Abstract Potent immunosuppressive dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids, 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6,6′-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B and 6′-hydroxythionuphlutine B, were isolated from the rhizome of Nuphar pumilum together with five inactive quinolizidine alkaloids, neothiobiNupharidine, Nupharidine, deoxyNupharidine, 7-epideoxyNupharidine and Nupharolutine. These dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids were found to significantly inhibit anti-sheep erythrocyte plaque forming cell formation in mouse splenocytes at 1 μM. At this concentration, 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B and 6′-hydroxythionuphlutine B did not show cytotoxic effects to mouse splenocytes, and 6,6′-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine also showed only minor or minimal cytotoxicity. By comparison of the inhibitory activity of several Nuphar alkaloids on anti-sheep erythrocyte plaque forming cell formation, some structural requirements of Nuphar alkaloids for immunosuppressive activity were obtained. Namely, the 6- or 6′-hydroxyl group at the quinolizidine ring of dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids is essential for the immunosuppressive effect. The number of hydroxyl groups appears to be related to the cytotoxicity, and the influence on splenocytes is greater with increasing numbers of hydroxyl groups.
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potent immunosuppressive principles dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids isolated from Nupharis rhizoma the rhizoma of Nuphar pumilum nymphaeaceae structure requirement of Nuphar alkaloid for immunosuppressive activity
Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 1996Co-Authors: Johji Yamahara, Hiroshi Shimoda, Hisashi Matsuda, Masayuki YoshikawaAbstract:Potent immunosuppressants, the dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids, 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine (2), 6, 6'-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine (3), 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B (5) and 6'-hydroxythionuphlutine B (6), were isolated from a natural medicine, Nupharis Rhizoma, the rhizoma of Nuphar pumilum (TIMM.) DC., through bioassay-guided separation together with five quinolizidine alkaloids (8, 9, 10, 11, 12). Dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids (2, 3, 5, 6) were found to significantly inhibit anti-sheep erythrocyte plaque forming cell formation in mice spleen cells at 10-6 M concentration. At this concentration, 2, 5 and 6 were found to exhibit no cytotoxicity to mice spleen cells, and 3 also showed only a little cytotoxicity. In addition, the inhibitory activity of several Nuphar alkaloids, dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids (1, 4, 7, 8), and monomeric sesquiterpene alkaloids (9, 10, 11, 12) on anti-sheep erythorocyte plaque forming cell formation was examined and some structural requirement of Nuphar alkaloid for immunosuppressive activity was determined.
Donald J Padgett - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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a monograph of Nuphar nymphaeaceae 1
Rhodora, 2007Co-Authors: Donald J PadgettAbstract:Abstract The genus Nuphar (Nymphaeaceae) is described to include 11 species native to fresh waters of the Northern Hemisphere. This assessment utilized morphometric analyses, cladistic analyses, evaluation of randomly amplified polymorphic DNA, and seed and pollen fertility estimations. Evolutionary reconstructions position the genus at the base of the family, most closely allied to Barclaya. Comprehensive cladistic analyses of morphological and molecular data have permitted a general phylogenetic interpretation of the genus. Two major evolutionary lineages are evident and recognized taxonomically at the section level. One (sect. Nuphar) includes N. lutea, N. × spenneriana, N. japonica, and N. × saijoensis, with an ultimate branch involving N. pumila and N. microphylla. The other lineage (sect. Astylus) includes N. polysepala, N. × rubrodisca, N. variegata, N. sagittifolia, and N. advena. All studies illustrate high morphological variability and close relationships of species within each section. The biol...
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natural hybridization and the imperiled Nuphar of western japan
Aquatic Botany, 2002Co-Authors: Donald J Padgett, Michiko Shimoda, Laura HorkyAbstract:Ponds in the Saijo Basin of western Japan contain three Nuphar taxa, two of which are threatened. It has been proposed previously that the rarest of the three, hitherto Nuphar japonica var. saijoensis, may have originated from natural hybridization between N. japonicaand Nuphar pumila subsp. oguraensis. To test this hypothesis, we conducted morphological analyses, pollen and seed fertility tests, and a RAPD analysis of all three pond-lilies. Individuals of the putative hybrid exhibit intermediate morphology, reduced pollen and seed viability, and genetic additivity in comparison to the other species. The putative hybrid is also limited geographically to an area of parental sympatry. Our findings support the hybrid origin of N. japonica var. saijoensis, which we recognize nomenclaturally as Nuphar × saijoensis. Loss and degradation of habitat due to urbanization is a major threat to the survival of this taxon. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
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phylogenetic relationships in Nuphar nymphaeaceae evidence from morphology chloroplast dna and nuclear ribosomal dna
American Journal of Botany, 1999Co-Authors: Donald J Padgett, Garrett E CrowAbstract:The genus Nuphar consists of yellow-flowered waterlilies and is widely distributed in north-temperate bodies of water. Despite regular taxonomic evaluation of these plants, no explicit phylogenetic hypotheses have been proposed for the genus. We investigated phylogenetic relationships in Nuphar using morphology and sequences of the chloroplast gene matK and of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Two major lineages within Nuphar are consistently resolved with the morphological and molecular data sets. One lineage comprises New World taxa and the other represents a primarily Old World lineage. Relationships within the major lineages were poorly resolved by morphology and ITS, yet certain relationships were elucidated by all analyses. Most notable is the strong support for a monophyletic lineage of dwarf taxa and the alliance of the North American N. microphylla with the Eurasian taxa. Minor discordance between the independent cladograms is accounted for by hybridization. The common taxonomic practice of uniting all North American and Eurasian taxa under one species is not supported phylogenetically.
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nomenclatural novelties in Nuphar nymphaeaceae
Sida Contributions To Botany, 1999Co-Authors: Donald J PadgettAbstract:Recent revisionary and cladistic studies in Nuphar Sm. resulted in the following nomenclatural amendments: two novel sections are described (sect. Nuphar and sect. Astylus ), five new combinations are proposed (N. advena subsp. orbiculata , N. advena subsp. ozarkana , N. advena subsp. ulvacea , N. pumila subsp. sinensis , N. puntila subsp. oguraensis ), and one species, N. oguraensis Miki, is lectotypified. RESUMEN Los estudios recientes, cladisticos y revisiones de Nuphar Sm. dan por resultado las siguientes enmiendas nomenclaturales: se describen dos secciones nuevas (sect. Nuphar y sect. Astylus ), se proponen cinco combinaciones nuevas (N. aduena subsp. orbiculata , N. advena subsp. ozarkana , N. advena subsp. ulvacea , N. pumila subsp. sinensis , N. pumila subsp. oguraensis ), y se lectotipifica N. ogaraensis. Nuphar Sm. (Nymphaeaceae) is a relatively common genus in north temperate regions of North America, Europe and Asia. Inhabiting ponds, lakes, streams and slow moving rivers, these perennial herbs are characterized by floating and submersed leaves and solitary, globose, yellow flowers. While conducting monographic research on Nuphar, morphological analyses initially suggested that the genus was represented by two sets of species, Old World and New World segregates (Padgett et al. 1996). Cladistic analyses of representative internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences (nrDNA) and matK (cpDNA) sequences subsequently offered strong support for the same
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phenetic distinction between the dwarf yellow water lilies Nuphar microphylla and n pumila nymphaeaceae
Botany, 1998Co-Authors: Donald J PadgettAbstract:Nuphar pumila (Timm) DC. and Nuphar microphylla (Pers.) Fern. are morphologically similar yellow water- lily species that are often regarded as conspecific or recognized as varieties of Nuphar lutea (L.) Sm. This phenetic study analyzes 18 features of vegetative, floral, and fruit morphology scored from North American populations of N. microphylla and Eurasian populations of N. pumila. Morphological similarities among specimens were assessed by univariate statistics, clustering by the unweighted pair group method using arithmetic averages (UPGMA), and ordination by principal components analyses. Means for 17 of the 18 quantitative variables differed significantly between operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of the two species, and an UPGMA phenogram provided good separation of OTUs. Principal components analysis also provided reasonable separation of OTUs, indicating leaf and fruit characters as strong distinguishing features. Multivariate analyses indicate two similar, yet distinct, morphological entities. When coupled with qualitative features, geographical barriers, and putative physiological barriers, morphometric data support the taxonomic recognition of two closely related species. Both species are most closely related to the Japanese endemic Nuphar japonica DC.
Hisashi Matsuda - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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biofunctional effects of thiohemiaminal type dimeric sesquiterpene alkaloids from Nuphar plants
Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 2019Co-Authors: Hisashi Matsuda, Seikou Nakamura, Souichi Nakashima, Masashi Fukaya, Masayuki YoshikawaAbstract:: Dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids from the rhizomes of Nuphar pumilum exhibited immunosuppressive effects using a sheep erythrocyte plaque forming cell (PFC) assay, as well as an anti-metastasis effect, and rapid apoptosis-inducing effects in tumor cell lines. In particular, dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids with a hydroxy group (6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6,6'-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B) showed substantial effects, whereas dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids lacking the hydroxy group (thiobiNupharidine, thionuphlutine B, 6'-hydroxythionuphlutine B, neothiobiNupharidine, thionuphlutine B β-sulfoxide, neothiobiNupharidine β-sulfoxide) and monomeric sesquiterpene alkaloids (Nupharidine, 7-epideoxyNupharidine, Nupharolutine) showed weak activity. In this review, we summarize our studies of the biofunctional effects of these alkaloids.
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Nuphar alkaloids with immediately apoptosis inducing activity from Nuphar pumilum and their structural requirements for the activity
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 2006Co-Authors: Hisashi Matsuda, Kazutoshi Yoshida, Katsutoshi Miyagawa, Yumiko Nemoto, Yasunobu Asao, Masayuki YoshikawaAbstract:Abstract The methanolic extract and its alkaloid fraction from the rhizomes of Nuphar pumilum showed cytotoxic effects on human leukemia cell (U937), mouse melanoma cell (B16F10), and human fibroblast (HT1080). Dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids with the 6-hydroxyl group (6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6,6′-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B) showed substantial cytotoxic activity at a concentration of 10 μM, but dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids lacking the 6-hydroxyl group (thiobiNupharidine, thionuphlutine B, 6′-hydroxythionuphlutine B, neothiobiNupharidine, thionuphlutine B β-sulfoxide, and neothiobiNupharidine β-sulfoxide) and monomeric sesquiterpene alkaloids (Nupharidine, 7-epideoxyNupharidine, and Nupharolutine) showed weak activity. Next, apoptosis-inducing activity of a principal active constituent, 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, on U937 was examined using morphological observation and DNA fragmentation assay (TUNEL method). Apoptosis of U937 was immediately observed within 1 h after treatment of 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine at 2.5–10 μM.
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dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids with potent immunosuppressive activity from the rhizome of Nuphar pumilum structural requirements of Nuphar alkaloids for immunosuppressive activity
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, 2001Co-Authors: Hisashi Matsuda, Hiroshi Shimoda, Masayuki YoshikawaAbstract:Abstract Potent immunosuppressive dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids, 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6,6′-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B and 6′-hydroxythionuphlutine B, were isolated from the rhizome of Nuphar pumilum together with five inactive quinolizidine alkaloids, neothiobiNupharidine, Nupharidine, deoxyNupharidine, 7-epideoxyNupharidine and Nupharolutine. These dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids were found to significantly inhibit anti-sheep erythrocyte plaque forming cell formation in mouse splenocytes at 1 μM. At this concentration, 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine, 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B and 6′-hydroxythionuphlutine B did not show cytotoxic effects to mouse splenocytes, and 6,6′-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine also showed only minor or minimal cytotoxicity. By comparison of the inhibitory activity of several Nuphar alkaloids on anti-sheep erythrocyte plaque forming cell formation, some structural requirements of Nuphar alkaloids for immunosuppressive activity were obtained. Namely, the 6- or 6′-hydroxyl group at the quinolizidine ring of dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids is essential for the immunosuppressive effect. The number of hydroxyl groups appears to be related to the cytotoxicity, and the influence on splenocytes is greater with increasing numbers of hydroxyl groups.
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potent immunosuppressive principles dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids isolated from Nupharis rhizoma the rhizoma of Nuphar pumilum nymphaeaceae structure requirement of Nuphar alkaloid for immunosuppressive activity
Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 1996Co-Authors: Johji Yamahara, Hiroshi Shimoda, Hisashi Matsuda, Masayuki YoshikawaAbstract:Potent immunosuppressants, the dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids, 6-hydroxythiobiNupharidine (2), 6, 6'-dihydroxythiobiNupharidine (3), 6-hydroxythionuphlutine B (5) and 6'-hydroxythionuphlutine B (6), were isolated from a natural medicine, Nupharis Rhizoma, the rhizoma of Nuphar pumilum (TIMM.) DC., through bioassay-guided separation together with five quinolizidine alkaloids (8, 9, 10, 11, 12). Dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids (2, 3, 5, 6) were found to significantly inhibit anti-sheep erythrocyte plaque forming cell formation in mice spleen cells at 10-6 M concentration. At this concentration, 2, 5 and 6 were found to exhibit no cytotoxicity to mice spleen cells, and 3 also showed only a little cytotoxicity. In addition, the inhibitory activity of several Nuphar alkaloids, dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids (1, 4, 7, 8), and monomeric sesquiterpene alkaloids (9, 10, 11, 12) on anti-sheep erythorocyte plaque forming cell formation was examined and some structural requirement of Nuphar alkaloid for immunosuppressive activity was determined.
Jack D Rogers - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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morphological and molecular characterization of colletotrichum nymphaeae and c Nupharicola sp nov on water lilies nymphaea and Nuphar
Fungal Biology, 1997Co-Authors: Dennis A Johnson, Lori M Carris, Jack D RogersAbstract:Nine isolates of a Colletotrichum sp. collected in North America on yellow water-lily (Nuphar luteum subsp. polysepalum) at five locations in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) and one isolate from Nymphaea odorata in Rhode Island were compared to three isolates of C. nymphaeae occurring on Nymphaea alba and Nuphar luteum in Europe. The appressoria of all North American isolates were significantly wider than those of C. nymphaeae. Conidia of the nine PNW isolates were significantly wider than those of both the Rhode Island isolate and C. nymphaeae isolates. All isolates were compared using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and restriction fragment length polymorphism of the ITS region (RFLP-ITS). Two distinct clusters were differentiated in the dendrogram based on the RAPD analysis. The ten North American isolates formed one cluster and the European isolates of C. nymphaeae formed a second cluster. The separation of the North American isolates from the European isolates was supported by distinct restriction digest phenotypes of the ITS region. Based on morphological and molecular characterization the North American fungus is proposed as a new species, C. Nupharicola.
Jacob Gopas - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Nuphar lutea extracts exhibit anti viral activity against the measles virus
Molecules, 2020Co-Authors: Hila Winer, Janet Ozer, Daniel Benharroch, Avi Golangoldhirsh, Yonat Shemer, Irit Reichenstein, Brit Eilamfrenkel, Jacob GopasAbstract:Different parts of Nuphar lutea L. (yellow water lily) have been used to treat several inflammatory and pathogen-related diseases. It has shown that Nuphar lutea extracts (NUP) are active against various pathogens including bacteria, fungi, and leishmanial parasites. In an effort to detect novel therapeutic agents against negative-stranded RNA (- RNA) viruses, we have tested the effect of a partially-purified alkaloid mixture of Nuphar lutea leaves on the measles virus (MV). The MV vaccine’s Edmonston strain was used to acutely or persistently infect cells. The levels of several MV proteins were detected by a Western blot and immunocytochemistry. Viral RNAs were quantitated by qRT-PCR. Virus infectivity was monitored by infecting African green monkey kidney VERO cells’ monolayers. We showed that NUP protected cells from acute infection. Decreases in the MV P-, N-, and V-proteins were observed in persistently infected cells and the amount of infective virus released was reduced as compared to untreated cells. By examining viral RNAs, we suggest that NUP acts at the post-transcriptional level. We conclude, as a proof of concept, that NUP has anti-viral therapeutic activity against the MV. Future studies will determine the mechanism of action and the effect of NUP on other related viruses.
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anti inflammatory effect of a Nuphar lutea partially purified leaf extract in murine models of septic shock
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2015Co-Authors: Janet Ozer, Avi Golangoldhirsh, T Levi, Jacob GopasAbstract:ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Various plant organs of Nuphar lutea (L.) SM. (Nymphaeaceae) are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of arthritis, fever, aches, pains and inflammation. The main purpose of this study was to determine the anti-inflammatory effect of Nuphar lutea leaf extract (NUP) in two septic shock models: (1) Survival of mice challenged with a lethal dose of LPS, determination of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in serum, as well as in peritoneal macrophages in cell culture. (2) The effect of NUP in a murine model of fecal-induced peritonitis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: NUP pre-treatment partially protected mice in two models of acute septic shock. We concluded that NUP is anti-inflammatory by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway, modulating cytokine production and ERK phosphorylation. RESULTS: A significant average survival rate (60%) of LPS lethally-challenged mice was achieved by pre-treatment with NUP. In addition, NUP pre-treatment reduced nuclear NF-κB translocation in peritoneal macrophages. The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-12, in the sera of LPS-treated mice or in the supernatants of peritoneal macrophages stimulated with LPS for 2-6 h was also decreased by NUP. Pre-treatment with NUP caused a significant increase in the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. The NUP pre-treatment reduced and delayed mortality in mice with fecal-induced peritonitis. Our studies also revealed that NUP pre-treatment induced a dose-dependent phosphorylation of ERK in peritoneal macrophages. Since most of the reports about the anti-inflammatory effect of Nuphar lutea refer to rhizome and root powder and extracts, it is important to clarify the effectiveness of leaf extract as a source for such activity. CONCLUSION: NUP pre-treatment partially protected mice in two models of acute septic shock. We concluded that NUP is anti-inflammatory by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway, modulating cytokine production and ERK phosphorylation.
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Nuphar lutea thioalkaloids inhibit the nuclear factor kappab pathway potentiate apoptosis and are synergistic with cisplatin and etoposide
Cancer Biology & Therapy, 2009Co-Authors: Janet Ozer, Nadav Eisner, Elena Ostrozhenkova, Adelbert Bacher, Wolfgang Eisenreich, Daniel Benharroch, Avi Golangoldhirsh, Jacob GopasAbstract:We screened thirty-four methanolic plant extracts for inhibition of the constitutive nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activity by a NF-κB-luciferase reporter gene assay. Strong inhibition of NF-κB activity was found in extracts of leaf and rhizome from Nuphar lutea L. SM. (Nuphar). The inhibitory action was narrowed down to a mixture of thioNupharidines and/or thionuphlutidines that were identified in chromatography fractions by one- and two-dimensional NMR analysis. Dimeric sesquiterpene thioalkaloids were identified as the major components of the mixture. The Nuphar alkaloids mixture (NUP) showed a dose dependent inhibition of NF-κB activity in a luciferase reporter gene assay as well as reduction of nuclear NF-κB subunits expression as tested by western blots and immunohistochemistry. Decreased DNA binding was demonstrated in electro mobility shift assays. NUP inhibited both inducible and constitutive NF-κB activation and affected the canonical and alternative pathways. Suppression of NF-κB was not cell type ...
