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Leo Posthuma - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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the ribatox web tool selecting methods to assess and manage the diverse problem of Chemical Pollution in surface waters
Environmental Sciences Europe, 2019Co-Authors: Kees Kramer, Christin Muller, Werner Brack, Frank Sleeuwaert, Guy Engelen, Leo PosthumaAbstract:Chemical Pollution of water bodies is a complex problem around the globe. When described by the extremes of the range of problem definitions, water bodies can be Chemically polluted by a single compound that is emitted from a point source or an incidental spill, or by chronic diffuse emissions from local and upstream land uses. The resulting mixture exposures can vary in space and time, e.g. due to the use of pesticides in the crop growing season. The environmental management objectives are commonly to protect and restore surface waters against human influences. Currently, Chemical Pollution is globally judged for a selected set of compounds, by judging each of these individually in comparison with protective environmental quality standards. Research has provided a novel assessment paradigm (solution-focused risk assessment) and novel data, measurement methods and models to improve on current practices. Their adoption and application require establishing novel linkages between the diverse problem definitions and the novel approaches. That would assist water quality professionals to select the most effective option or options to protect and restore water quality. The present paper introduces the RiBaTox (River Basin Specific Toxicants assessment and management) web tool. It consists of short descriptions of the novel approaches (made available as Additional file 1) and a decision tree for end-users to select those. The overview of novel approaches collated in RiBaTox is relevant for end-users ranging from local water quality experts up till strategic policy developers. Although RiBaTox was developed in the context of European water quality problems, the methods provided by RiBaTox are relevant for users from (inter)national to local scales. This paper is part of a series of Policy Briefs from the EU-FP7 project SOLUTIONS ( http://www.solutions-project.eu ), which provide backgrounds on Chemical Pollution of surface waters and policy practices and proposed improvements.
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improved component based methods for mixture risk assessment are key to characterize complex Chemical Pollution in surface waters
Environmental Sciences Europe, 2019Co-Authors: Leo Posthuma, Rolf Altenburger, Thomas Backhaus, Andreas Kortenkamp, Christin Muller, Andreas Focks, Dick De Zwart, Werner BrackAbstract:The present monitoring and assessment of water quality problems fails to characterize the likelihood that complex mixtures of Chemicals affect water quality. The European collaborative project SOLUTIONS suggests that this likelihood can be estimated, amongst other methods, with improved component-based methods (CBMs). The use of CBMs is a well-established practice in the WFD, as one of the lines of evidence to evaluate Chemical Pollution on a per-Chemical basis. However, this is currently limited to a pre-selection of 45 and approximately 300 monitored substances (priority substances and river basin-specific pollutants, respectively), of which only a few actually co-occur in relevant concentrations in real-world mixtures. Advanced CBM practices are therefore needed that consider a broader, realistic spectrum of Chemicals and thereby improve the assessment of mixture impacts, diagnose the causes of observed impacts and provide more useful water management information. Various CBMs are described and illustrated, often representing improvements of well-established methods. Given the goals of the WFD and expanding on current guidance for risk assessment, these improved CBMs can be applied to predicted or monitored concentrations of Chemical pollutants to provide information for management planning. As shown in various examples, the outcomes of the improved CBMs allow for the evaluation of the current likelihood of impacts, of alternative abatement scenarios as well as the expected consequences of future Pollution scenarios. The outputs of the improved CBMs are useful to underpin programmes of measures to protect and improve water quality. The combination of CBMs with effect-based methods (EBMs) might be especially powerful to identify as yet underinvestigated emerging pollutants and their importance in a mixture toxicity context. The present paper has been designed as one in a series of policy briefs to support decisions on water quality protection, monitoring, assessment and management under the European Water Framework Directive (WFD).
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Exploring the ‘solution space’ is key: SOLUTIONS recommends an early-stage assessment of options to protect and restore water quality against Chemical Pollution
Environmental Sciences Europe, 2019Co-Authors: Leo Posthuma, Thomas Backhaus, Christin Muller, Werner Brack, Juliane Hollender, Dirk Bunke, Jos Gils, Henner Hollert, John Munthe, Annemarie WezelAbstract:Present evaluations of Chemical Pollution in European surface and groundwater bodies focus on problem description and Chemical classification of water quality. Surprisingly, relatively low attention has been paid to solutions of Chemical Pollution problems when those are encountered. Based on evaluations of current practices and available approaches, we suggest that water quality protection, monitoring, assessment and management of Chemical Pollution can be improved by implementing an early-stage exploration of the ‘solution space’. This follows from the innovative paradigm of solution-focused risk assessment, which was developed to improve the utility of risk assessments. The ‘solution space’ is defined as the set of potential activities that can be considered to protect or restore the water quality against hazards posed by Chemical Pollution. When using the paradigm, upfront exploration of solution options and selecting options that would be feasible given the local Pollution context would result in comparative risk assessment outcomes. The comparative outcomes are useful for selecting optimal measures against Chemical Pollution for management prioritization and planning. It is recommended to apply the solution-focused risk assessment paradigm to improve the Chemical Pollution information for river basin management planning. To operationalize this, the present paper describes a still-growing database and strategy to find and select technical abatement and/or non-technical solution options for Chemical Pollution of surface waters. The solutions database and strategy can be applied to help prevent and reduce water quality problems. Various case studies show that implementing these can be effective, and how solution scenarios can be evaluated for their efficacy by comparative exposure and effect assessment.
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a holistic approach is key to protect water quality and monitor assess and manage Chemical Pollution of european surface waters
Environmental Sciences Europe, 2019Co-Authors: Leo Posthuma, Rolf Altenburger, Christin Muller, Jos Van Gils, John Munthe, Jaroslav Slobodnik, Werner BrackAbstract:Chemical Pollution of surface waters is a societal concern around the globe. Key problems in current water quality protection, assessment and management are the narrow focus on a small fraction of the Chemicals in commerce, concerns for increasingly diverse Chemical emissions, and lack of effective diagnosis and management approaches. In reply, three key concepts to address these challenges were developed and tested. The approaches were developed in the context of the European Union Water Framework Directive, based on principles such as the DPSIR-causal framework (Drivers, Pressure, Status, Impact and Response) and the basic feature that water protection and management should be based on a water-system level approach. Collaborative actions of researchers and stakeholders resulted in: (1) an operationalization and implementation of the solution-focused risk assessment paradigm as proposed in 2009, to improve the utility of risk assessments, (2) the provision of a large set of tools and services to prevent, monitor, assess and manage complex mixture Pollution problems, and (3) a strategy and a database on intervention options. These three elements were recognized as core elements to help protecting and improving water quality. Although the methods were developed in the context of water quality problems in Europe, the three elements can be applied globally in water quality protection and management.
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species sensitivity distributions for use in environmental protection assessment and management of aquatic ecosystems for 12 386 Chemicals
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2019Co-Authors: Leo Posthuma, Jos Van Gils, Michiel C Zijp, Dik Van De Meent, Dick De ZwartAbstract:The present paper considers the collection and use of ecotoxicity data for risk assessment with Species Sensitivity Distributions (SSDs) of Chemical Pollution in surface water. SSDs are used to quantify the likelihood that critical effect levels are exceeded. This fits to the European Water Framework Directive, which suggest using models to assess the likelihood that Chemicals affect water quality for management prioritization. We derived SSDs based on chronic and acute ecotoxicity test data for 12,386 compounds. The log-normal SSDs are characterized by the median and the standard deviation of log-transformed ecotoxicity data and by a quality score. A case study illustrates the utility of SSDs for water quality assessment and management prioritization. We quantified the chronic and acute mixture toxic pressure of mixture exposures for >22,000 water bodies in Europe for 1,760 Chemicals for which we had both exposure and hazard data. Results show the likelihood of mixture exposures exceeding a negligible effect level and increasing species loss, respectively. The SSDs presented in this paper represent a versatile and comprehensive approach to prevent, assess and manage Chemical Pollution problems. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Werner Brack - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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assessing the mixture effects in in vitro bioassays of Chemicals occurring in small agricultural streams during rain events
Environmental Science & Technology, 2020Co-Authors: Peta A Neale, Werner Brack, Martin Krauss, Georg Braun, Eric Carmona, Roman Gunold, Maria Konig, Liana Liebmann, Matthias LiessAbstract:Rain events may impact the Chemical Pollution burden in rivers. Forty-four small streams in Germany were profiled during several rain events for the presence of 395 Chemicals and five types of mixt...
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the ribatox web tool selecting methods to assess and manage the diverse problem of Chemical Pollution in surface waters
Environmental Sciences Europe, 2019Co-Authors: Kees Kramer, Christin Muller, Werner Brack, Frank Sleeuwaert, Guy Engelen, Leo PosthumaAbstract:Chemical Pollution of water bodies is a complex problem around the globe. When described by the extremes of the range of problem definitions, water bodies can be Chemically polluted by a single compound that is emitted from a point source or an incidental spill, or by chronic diffuse emissions from local and upstream land uses. The resulting mixture exposures can vary in space and time, e.g. due to the use of pesticides in the crop growing season. The environmental management objectives are commonly to protect and restore surface waters against human influences. Currently, Chemical Pollution is globally judged for a selected set of compounds, by judging each of these individually in comparison with protective environmental quality standards. Research has provided a novel assessment paradigm (solution-focused risk assessment) and novel data, measurement methods and models to improve on current practices. Their adoption and application require establishing novel linkages between the diverse problem definitions and the novel approaches. That would assist water quality professionals to select the most effective option or options to protect and restore water quality. The present paper introduces the RiBaTox (River Basin Specific Toxicants assessment and management) web tool. It consists of short descriptions of the novel approaches (made available as Additional file 1) and a decision tree for end-users to select those. The overview of novel approaches collated in RiBaTox is relevant for end-users ranging from local water quality experts up till strategic policy developers. Although RiBaTox was developed in the context of European water quality problems, the methods provided by RiBaTox are relevant for users from (inter)national to local scales. This paper is part of a series of Policy Briefs from the EU-FP7 project SOLUTIONS ( http://www.solutions-project.eu ), which provide backgrounds on Chemical Pollution of surface waters and policy practices and proposed improvements.
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improved component based methods for mixture risk assessment are key to characterize complex Chemical Pollution in surface waters
Environmental Sciences Europe, 2019Co-Authors: Leo Posthuma, Rolf Altenburger, Thomas Backhaus, Andreas Kortenkamp, Christin Muller, Andreas Focks, Dick De Zwart, Werner BrackAbstract:The present monitoring and assessment of water quality problems fails to characterize the likelihood that complex mixtures of Chemicals affect water quality. The European collaborative project SOLUTIONS suggests that this likelihood can be estimated, amongst other methods, with improved component-based methods (CBMs). The use of CBMs is a well-established practice in the WFD, as one of the lines of evidence to evaluate Chemical Pollution on a per-Chemical basis. However, this is currently limited to a pre-selection of 45 and approximately 300 monitored substances (priority substances and river basin-specific pollutants, respectively), of which only a few actually co-occur in relevant concentrations in real-world mixtures. Advanced CBM practices are therefore needed that consider a broader, realistic spectrum of Chemicals and thereby improve the assessment of mixture impacts, diagnose the causes of observed impacts and provide more useful water management information. Various CBMs are described and illustrated, often representing improvements of well-established methods. Given the goals of the WFD and expanding on current guidance for risk assessment, these improved CBMs can be applied to predicted or monitored concentrations of Chemical pollutants to provide information for management planning. As shown in various examples, the outcomes of the improved CBMs allow for the evaluation of the current likelihood of impacts, of alternative abatement scenarios as well as the expected consequences of future Pollution scenarios. The outputs of the improved CBMs are useful to underpin programmes of measures to protect and improve water quality. The combination of CBMs with effect-based methods (EBMs) might be especially powerful to identify as yet underinvestigated emerging pollutants and their importance in a mixture toxicity context. The present paper has been designed as one in a series of policy briefs to support decisions on water quality protection, monitoring, assessment and management under the European Water Framework Directive (WFD).
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Exploring the ‘solution space’ is key: SOLUTIONS recommends an early-stage assessment of options to protect and restore water quality against Chemical Pollution
Environmental Sciences Europe, 2019Co-Authors: Leo Posthuma, Thomas Backhaus, Christin Muller, Werner Brack, Juliane Hollender, Dirk Bunke, Jos Gils, Henner Hollert, John Munthe, Annemarie WezelAbstract:Present evaluations of Chemical Pollution in European surface and groundwater bodies focus on problem description and Chemical classification of water quality. Surprisingly, relatively low attention has been paid to solutions of Chemical Pollution problems when those are encountered. Based on evaluations of current practices and available approaches, we suggest that water quality protection, monitoring, assessment and management of Chemical Pollution can be improved by implementing an early-stage exploration of the ‘solution space’. This follows from the innovative paradigm of solution-focused risk assessment, which was developed to improve the utility of risk assessments. The ‘solution space’ is defined as the set of potential activities that can be considered to protect or restore the water quality against hazards posed by Chemical Pollution. When using the paradigm, upfront exploration of solution options and selecting options that would be feasible given the local Pollution context would result in comparative risk assessment outcomes. The comparative outcomes are useful for selecting optimal measures against Chemical Pollution for management prioritization and planning. It is recommended to apply the solution-focused risk assessment paradigm to improve the Chemical Pollution information for river basin management planning. To operationalize this, the present paper describes a still-growing database and strategy to find and select technical abatement and/or non-technical solution options for Chemical Pollution of surface waters. The solutions database and strategy can be applied to help prevent and reduce water quality problems. Various case studies show that implementing these can be effective, and how solution scenarios can be evaluated for their efficacy by comparative exposure and effect assessment.
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a holistic approach is key to protect water quality and monitor assess and manage Chemical Pollution of european surface waters
Environmental Sciences Europe, 2019Co-Authors: Leo Posthuma, Rolf Altenburger, Christin Muller, Jos Van Gils, John Munthe, Jaroslav Slobodnik, Werner BrackAbstract:Chemical Pollution of surface waters is a societal concern around the globe. Key problems in current water quality protection, assessment and management are the narrow focus on a small fraction of the Chemicals in commerce, concerns for increasingly diverse Chemical emissions, and lack of effective diagnosis and management approaches. In reply, three key concepts to address these challenges were developed and tested. The approaches were developed in the context of the European Union Water Framework Directive, based on principles such as the DPSIR-causal framework (Drivers, Pressure, Status, Impact and Response) and the basic feature that water protection and management should be based on a water-system level approach. Collaborative actions of researchers and stakeholders resulted in: (1) an operationalization and implementation of the solution-focused risk assessment paradigm as proposed in 2009, to improve the utility of risk assessments, (2) the provision of a large set of tools and services to prevent, monitor, assess and manage complex mixture Pollution problems, and (3) a strategy and a database on intervention options. These three elements were recognized as core elements to help protecting and improving water quality. Although the methods were developed in the context of water quality problems in Europe, the three elements can be applied globally in water quality protection and management.
Damia Barcelo - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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integrated environmental risk assessment of Chemical Pollution in a mediterranean floodplain by combining Chemical and biological methods
Science of The Total Environment, 2017Co-Authors: Claudia Rivetti, Damia Barcelo, Jhon J Lopezperea, Celia Laguna, Benjamin Pina, Rafael Mateo, Ethel Eljarrat, Carlos BarataAbstract:The Tablas de Daimiel National Park (TDNP) is a unique floodplain ecosystem in central Spain, serving as permanent resting and breeding areas for many waterbird species. In the last decades, this biodiversity hotspot has been severely endangered by poorly treated wastewater discharges from upstream urban communities arriving through its two major contributors, the Ciguela and Guadiana rivers. In this work, we analysed the potential risk of this constant input of micropollutants (estrogens, dioxin-like compounds and other endocrine disruptors) for the resident wildlife. We sampled 12 locations in TDNP and in the nearby Navaseca Pond during 2013, and performed a series of in-vivo and in-vitro bioassays, including Daphnia magna post-exposure feeding inhibition and recombinant yeast-based assays for dioxin-like and estrogenic activities. These results were then compared with the Chemical composition of the samples, analysed by GC–MS/MS and LC-MS/MS, and evaluated according to their toxic potential as toxic equivalents or TEQ. The Navaseca Pond, heavily impacted by wastewater from the town of Daimiel, showed the highest levels of toxic compounds, estrogenic activity, and Daphnia toxicity. Conversely, the less impacted TDNP sites showed low residue levels of contaminants, low estrogenicity and dioxin-like activity and negligible toxicity. The results indicates that the current good Chemical status of TDNP is menaced by both the inflow of wastewater treatment plants effluents from Guadiana and Ciguela rivers into TDNP tributaries and, as it occurs in the Navaseca Pond, by direct sewage discharges.
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ecotoxicological risk assessment of Chemical Pollution in four iberian river basins and its relationship with the aquatic macroinvertebrate community status
Science of The Total Environment, 2016Co-Authors: Maja Kuzmanovic, Julio C Lopezdoval, Nuria De Castrocatala, Helena Guasch, Mira Petrovic, Isabel Munoz, Antoni Ginebreda, Damia BarceloAbstract:Ecotoxicological risk assessment of Chemical Pollution in four Iberian river basins (Llobregat, Ebro, Jucar and Guadalquivir) was performed. The data set included more than 200 emerging and priority compoundsmeasured at 77 sampling sites along four river basins studied. The toxic units (TU) approach was used to assess the risk of individual compounds and the concentration addition model (CA) to assess the site specific risk. Link between Chemical Pollution and aquatic macroinvertebrate communities in situ was examined by using four biological indexes; SPEAR ('Species at Risk Index') as the indicator of decline of sensitive species in relation to general organic (SPEARorganic) and pesticides (SPEARpesticides) Pollution; and Shannon and Margalef biodiversity indexes. The results of the study suggested that organic Chemicals posed the risk of acute effects at 42% of the sampling sites and the risk of chronic effects at all the sites.Metals posed the acute risk at 44% of the sites. Themain drivers of the riskwere mainly pesticides and metals. However, several emerging contaminants (e.g. the antidepressant drug sertraline and the disinfectant triclosan) were contributing to the chronic effects risk. When risk associated with metals and organic Chemicals was compared, the latter dominated in 2010, mainly due to the presence of highly toxic pesticides, while metals did in 2011. Compounds that are not regulated on the European level were posing the risk of chronic effects at 23% of the sites. The decline of sensitive macroinvertebrate taxa expressed in terms of SPEAR index was correlatedwith the increase of toxic stress related to organic compounds Biodiversity indexes were negatively correlated with the metals and the urban land use type in the catchment
Aseem Prakash - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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reducing toxic Chemical Pollution in response to multiple information signals the 33 50 voluntary program and toxicity disclosures
Ecological Economics, 2018Co-Authors: Phi Cong Hoang, William Mcguire, Aseem PrakashAbstract:Abstract We study firms' responses to two US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) information-based interventions. First, the EPA disclosed toxicity information on the Chemicals listed in the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI). Second, it grouped 17 of the TRI Chemicals in the 33/50 voluntary program and challenged firms participating in this program to aggressively reduce their aggregate emissions. Firms therefore faced “twin” signals: focus on the most toxic Chemicals, and focus on 33/50 targeted Chemicals. We use a novel set of instruments to estimate the causal effects of these twin signals on Chemical releases of U.S. manufacturing firms during the life of the 33/50 program (1991–1995), and after the program ended (1996–2013). We examine both “raw” emissions (in pounds) and “weighted” emissions (weighted by toxicity scores) of both 33/50-targeted and non-targeted Chemicals. We find that 33/50 program participants reduced weighted emissions of 33/50-targeted Chemicals only, with no effects on “raw” emissions or non-targeted Chemicals. We also find that these reductions persisted after the program ended in 1995. These results suggest that firms are not unconditional greenwashers or environmental stewards. Rather, firms strategically invest resources to pursue environmental stewardship while taking into account multiple signals from their key stakeholders such as the EPA.
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reducing toxic Chemical Pollution in response to multiple information signals the 33 50 voluntary program and toxicity disclosures
Ecological Economics, 2018Co-Authors: Phi Cong Hoang, William Mcguire, Aseem PrakashAbstract:Abstract We study firms' responses to two US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) information-based interventions. First, the EPA disclosed toxicity information on the Chemicals listed in the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI). Second, it grouped 17 of the TRI Chemicals in the 33/50 voluntary program and challenged firms participating in this program to aggressively reduce their aggregate emissions. Firms therefore faced “twin” signals: focus on the most toxic Chemicals, and focus on 33/50 targeted Chemicals. We use a novel set of instruments to estimate the causal effects of these twin signals on Chemical releases of U.S. manufacturing firms during the life of the 33/50 program (1991–1995), and after the program ended (1996–2013). We examine both “raw” emissions (in pounds) and “weighted” emissions (weighted by toxicity scores) of both 33/50-targeted and non-targeted Chemicals. We find that 33/50 program participants reduced weighted emissions of 33/50-targeted Chemicals only, with no effects on “raw” emissions or non-targeted Chemicals. We also find that these reductions persisted after the program ended in 1995. These results suggest that firms are not unconditional greenwashers or environmental stewards. Rather, firms strategically invest resources to pursue environmental stewardship while taking into account multiple signals from their key stakeholders such as the EPA.
Mira Petrovic - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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impact of urban Chemical Pollution on water quality in small rural and effluent dominated mediterranean streams and rivers
Science of The Total Environment, 2018Co-Authors: Ladislav Mandaric, Mira Petrovic, Sergi Sabater, Jordirene MorAbstract:Abstract The impact and occurrence of wastewater (treated and untreated) derived pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) have been investigated in small, rural and effluent-dominated tributaries of the lower Ebro River located in the North-Eastern Spain (Catalonia). We have observed the predominant effect of stream flow and consequently dilution factor on the concentration levels of detected PhACs that combined with the absence of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) resulted in 12 times higher concentrations in streams with direct discharge of untreated wastewater. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were the most ubiquitous compounds, in terms of both individual concentration and frequency of detection. In the sites impacted by raw wastewater, acetaminophen and ibuprofen showed the highest concentrations among all analyzed PhACs, reaching concentrations up to 7.78 μg L − 1 and 2.66 μg L − 1 , respectively. However, PhACs detected in the sites impacted by treated wastewater showed generally lower concentration levels and frequencies of detection. Also, effluent-dominated streams showed higher concentration levels of PhACs due to a generally lower stream flows and small dilution factors. However, concentration levels of detected PhACs were dependent on the hydraulic travel time and distance from the discharge point and related with the in-stream attenuation. As a result, this study highlights the combined impact of hydrological and Chemical stressors on the water quality of the rural Mediterranean aquatic ecosystems.
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ecotoxicological risk assessment of Chemical Pollution in four iberian river basins and its relationship with the aquatic macroinvertebrate community status
Science of The Total Environment, 2016Co-Authors: Maja Kuzmanovic, Julio C Lopezdoval, Nuria De Castrocatala, Helena Guasch, Mira Petrovic, Isabel Munoz, Antoni Ginebreda, Damia BarceloAbstract:Ecotoxicological risk assessment of Chemical Pollution in four Iberian river basins (Llobregat, Ebro, Jucar and Guadalquivir) was performed. The data set included more than 200 emerging and priority compoundsmeasured at 77 sampling sites along four river basins studied. The toxic units (TU) approach was used to assess the risk of individual compounds and the concentration addition model (CA) to assess the site specific risk. Link between Chemical Pollution and aquatic macroinvertebrate communities in situ was examined by using four biological indexes; SPEAR ('Species at Risk Index') as the indicator of decline of sensitive species in relation to general organic (SPEARorganic) and pesticides (SPEARpesticides) Pollution; and Shannon and Margalef biodiversity indexes. The results of the study suggested that organic Chemicals posed the risk of acute effects at 42% of the sampling sites and the risk of chronic effects at all the sites.Metals posed the acute risk at 44% of the sites. Themain drivers of the riskwere mainly pesticides and metals. However, several emerging contaminants (e.g. the antidepressant drug sertraline and the disinfectant triclosan) were contributing to the chronic effects risk. When risk associated with metals and organic Chemicals was compared, the latter dominated in 2010, mainly due to the presence of highly toxic pesticides, while metals did in 2011. Compounds that are not regulated on the European level were posing the risk of chronic effects at 23% of the sites. The decline of sensitive macroinvertebrate taxa expressed in terms of SPEAR index was correlatedwith the increase of toxic stress related to organic compounds Biodiversity indexes were negatively correlated with the metals and the urban land use type in the catchment