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Erik D. Reichle - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • the effect of contextual plausibility on word skipping during reading
    Cognition, 2020
    Co-Authors: Aaron Veldre, Erik D. Reichle, Roslyn Wong, Sally Andrews
    Abstract:

    Abstract Recent eye-movement evidence suggests Readers are more likely to skip a high-frequency word than a low-frequency word independently of the semantic or syntactic acceptability of the word in the sentence. This has been interpreted as strong support for a serial processing mechanism in which the decision to skip a word is based on the completion of a preliminary stage of lexical processing prior to any assessment of contextual fit. The present large-scale study was designed to reconcile these findings with the plausibility preview effect: higher skipping and reduced first-pass reading times for words that are previewed by contextually plausible, compared to implausible, sentence continuations that are unrelated to the target word. Participants' eye movements were recorded as they read sentences containing a short (3–4 letters) or long (6 letters) target word. The boundary paradigm was used to present parafoveal previews which were either higher or lower frequency than the target, and either plausible or implausible in the sentence context. The results revealed strong, independent effects of all three factors on target skipping and early measures of target fixation duration, while frequency and plausibility interacted on later measures of target fixation duration. Simulations using the E-Z Reader Model of eye-movement control in reading demonstrated that plausibility effects on skipping are potentially consistent with the assumption that higher-level contextual information only affects post-lexical integration processes. However, no current Model of eye movements in reading provides an explicit account of the information or processes that allow Readers to rapidly detect an integration failure.

  • The “risky” reading strategy revisited: New simulations using E-Z Reader:
    Quarterly journal of experimental psychology (2006), 2018
    Co-Authors: Victoria A. Mcgowan, Erik D. Reichle
    Abstract:

    Eye-movement studies have demonstrated that, relative to college-aged Readers, older Readers of alphabetic languages like English and German tend to read more slowly, making more frequent and longer fixations and longer saccades, and skipping more words, but also making more frequent regressions. These findings have led to suggestions that older Readers either adopt a "risky" strategy of using context to "guess" words as a way of compensating for slower rates of lexical processing, or have a smaller and more asymmetrical perceptual span. Unfortunately, neither of these hypotheses seemingly explains more recent observations that older Readers of Chinese seem to adopt a more "conservative" strategy, making shorter saccades and skipping less often. In this paper, we use the E-Z Reader Model of eye-movement control to examine several possible accounts of the differences between college-aged and older Readers of both alphabetic and non-alphabetic languages. These simulations re-confirm that the "risky" strategy may be sufficient to explain age-related differences in Reader's eye movements, with older Readers of English versus Chinese being, respectively, more versus less inclined to guess upcoming words. The implications of these results for aging, reading, and Models of eye-movement control are discussed.

  • Why does removing inter-word spaces produce reading deficits? The role of parafoveal processing
    Psychonomic bulletin & review, 2016
    Co-Authors: Heather Sheridan, Erik D. Reichle, Eyal M. Reingold
    Abstract:

    To examine the role of inter-word spaces during reading, we used a gaze-contingent boundary paradigm to manipulate parafoveal preview (i.e., valid vs. invalid preview) in a normal text condition that contained spaces (e.g., "John decided to sell the table") and in an unsegmented text condition that contained random numbers instead of spaces (e.g.,"John4decided8to5sell9the7table"). Preview effects on mean first-fixation durations were larger for normal than unsegmented text conditions, and survival analyses revealed a delay in the onset of both preview validity and word-frequency effects on first-fixation durations for unsegmented relative to normal text. Taken together with simulations that were conducted using the E-Z Reader Model, the present findings indicated that unsegmented text deficits reflect disruptions to both parafoveal processing and lexical processing. We discuss the implications of our results for Models of eye-movement control.

  • Eye movements in reading and information processing: Keith Rayner’s 40 year legacy
    Journal of Memory and Language, 2016
    Co-Authors: Charles Clifton, Erik D. Reichle, Albrecht W. Inhoff, Fernanda Ferreira, John M. Henderson, Simon Paul Liversedge, Elizabeth R Schotter
    Abstract:

    Keith Rayner’s extraordinary scientific career revolutionized the field of reading research and had a major impact on almost all areas of cognitive psychology. In this article, we review some of his most significant contributions. We begin with Rayner’s research on eye movement control, including the development of paradigms for answering questions about the perceptual span and its relationship to attention, reading experience, and linguistic variables. From there we proceed to lexical processing, where we summarize Rayner’s work on effects of word frequency, length, predictability, and the resolution of lexical ambiguity. Next, we turn to syntactic and discourse processing, covering the well-known garden-path Model of parsing and briefly reviewing studies of pronoun resolution and inferencing. The next section shifts from language to visual cognition and reviews research which makes use of eye movement techniques to investigate object and scene processing. Next, we summarize Rayner and colleagues’ approach to computational Modeling, with a description of the E-Z Reader Model linking attention and lexical processing to eye movement control. The final section discusses the issues Rayner and his colleagues were focused on most recently and considers how Rayner’s legacy will continue into the future.

  • Computational Models of Reading: A Primer
    Language and Linguistics Compass, 2015
    Co-Authors: Erik D. Reichle
    Abstract:

    This article briefly reviews four computational Models of reading and the types of empirical findings that they are designed to explain: (1) the Dual-Route Model of word identification (Coltheart et al., 2001); (2) the Simple-Recurrent Network Model of sentence processing (Elman, 1990); (3) the Construction–Integration Model of discourse representation (Kintsch, 1988); and (4) the E-Z Reader Model of eye-movement control in reading (Reichle et al., 2012). These particular Models are reviewed because they provide comprehensive accounts of a large number of empirical findings in each of their respective domains, and because they have advanced our understanding of the cognitive processes involved in reading by motivating new empirical studies. Future Models of reading will build upon the success of their predecessors by integrating Models from two or more of the aforementioned domains, thereby providing a means to examine the compatibility of their theoretical assumptions and more comprehensive accounts of the cognitive processes involved in reading.

Keith Rayner - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • the effect of contextual constraint on parafoveal processing in reading
    Journal of Memory and Language, 2015
    Co-Authors: Elizabeth R Schotter, Michael Reiderman, Keith Rayner
    Abstract:

    Semantic preview benefit in reading is an elusive and controversial effect because empirical studies do not always (but sometimes) find evidence for it. Its presence seems to depend on (at least) the language being read, visual properties of the text (e.g., initial letter capitalization), the type of relationship between preview and target, and as shown here, semantic constraint generated by the prior sentence context. Schotter (2013) reported semantic preview benefit for synonyms, but not semantic associates when the preview/target was embedded in a neutral sentence context. In Experiment 1, we embedded those same previews/targets into constrained sentence contexts and in Experiment 2 we replicated the effects reported by Schotter (2013; in neutral sentence contexts) and Experiment 1 (in constrained contexts) in a within-subjects design. In both experiments, we found an early (i.e., first-pass) apparent preview benefit for semantically associated previews in constrained contexts that went away in late measures (e.g., total time). These data suggest that sentence constraint (at least as manipulated in the current study) does not operate by making a single word form expected, but rather generates expectations about what kinds of words are likely to appear. Furthermore, these data are compatible with the assumption of the E-Z Reader Model that early oculomotor decisions reflect “hedged bets” that a word will be identifiable and, when wrong, lead the system to identify the wrong word, triggering regressions.

  • using e z Reader to examine the concurrent development of eye movement control and reading skill
    Developmental Review, 2013
    Co-Authors: Erik D. Reichle, Denis Drieghe, Simon Paul Liversedge, Hazel I Blythe, Holly S S L Joseph, Sarah J White, Keith Rayner
    Abstract:

    Compared to skilled adult Readers, children typically make more fixations that are longer in duration, shorter saccades, and more regressions, thus reading more slowly (Blythe & Joseph, 2011). Recent attempts to understand the reasons for these differences have discovered some similarities (e.g., children and adults target their saccades similarly; Joseph, Liversedge, Blythe, White, & Rayner, 2009) and some differences (e.g., children’s fixation durations are more affected by lexical variables; Blythe, Liversedge, Joseph, White, & Rayner, 2009) that have yet to be explained. In this article, the E-Z Reader Model of eye-movement control in reading (Reichle, 2011; Reichle, Pollatsek, Fisher, & Rayner, 1998) is used to simulate various eye-movement phenomena in adults vs. children in order to evaluate hypotheses about the concurrent development of reading skill and eye-movement behavior. These simulations suggest that the primary difference between children and adults is their rate of lexical processing, and that different rates of (post-lexical) language processing may also contribute to some phenomena (e.g., children’s slower detection of semantic anomalies; Joseph et al., 2008). The theoretical implications of this hypothesis are discussed, including possible alternative accounts of these developmental changes, how reading skill and eye movements change across the entire lifespan (e.g., college-aged vs. older Readers), and individual differences in reading ability.

  • parafoveal foveal overlap can facilitate ongoing word identification during reading evidence from eye movements
    Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2013
    Co-Authors: Bernhard Angele, Randy Tran, Keith Rayner
    Abstract:

    It is obvious that listeners receive linguistic information one word at a time and that, in terms of lexical processing, speech perception is a serial process (Rayner & Clifton, 2009). In contrast, during reading, multiple words are visually available to the Reader simultaneously. But, do Readers use information from multiple words in parallel? There is considerable evidence that Readers can pre-process parafoveal words before fixating them and this leads to faster processing of the word once it is fixated (see Rayner, 1998, 2009; Schotter, Angele, & Rayner, 2012). The issue of serial versus parallel processing is also at the heart of debates and Models concerning eye movement control in reading. According to the E-Z Reader Model (Pollatsek, Reichle, & Rayner, 2006; Rayner, Li, & Pollatsek, 2007; Reichle, Pollatsek, Fisher, & Rayner, 1998; Reichle, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 2006; Reichle, Warren, & McConnell, 2009), lexical processing is serial. Although there are some parallel components in the Model, such as the overlapping saccade planning and word identification stages or the parallel identification of letters within a word, in E-Z Reader the upcoming word n+1 is not lexically processed until the processing of the currently fixated word n has achieved lexical access. In contrast, in Models like SWIFT (Engbert, Longtin, & Kliegl, 2002; Engbert, Nuthmann, Richter, & Kliegl, 2005) and Glenmore (Reilly & Radach, 2003, 2006) multiple words can in principle be processed in parallel though the fixated word generally receives the most activation in these Models. The question of the plausibility of parallel lexical processing of words during reading is highly controversial (see Reichle, Liversedge, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 2009) and beyond the scope of the present article. Rather, we address a somewhat different issue, namely the extent to which parafoveal word information influences processing of the foveal fixated word. This latter issue has typically been couched in terms of parafoveal-on-foveal effects and here too the findings are rather controversial (see Schotter et al., 2011). Parafoveal-on-foveal effects refer to the possibility that the characteristics of word n+1 influence the duration of the fixation on word n. There are data suggesting that unusual orthographic features of word n+1 slow processing of word n (Blanchard, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 1989; White & Liversedge, 2006, 2004). Such effects are also known as orthographic parafoveal-on-foveal effects. The data concerning lexical processing are as already noted controversial, with some studies showing no effects of the frequency of word n+1 on word n (Henderson & Ferreira, 1990; Rayner, Fischer, & Pollatsek, 1998) and others showing effects (Kliegl, Nuthmann, & Engbert, 2006). However, such effects are typically observed in corpus-based analyses (where all words in the sentence are analyzed, rather than controlled target-word experiments which typically do not show an effect). Furthermore, the direction of the effect is not consistent experimental studies, with some yielding shorter fixations on word n when word n+1 is frequent (e.g. Kennedy, 1998) and some showing longer fixations on word n when word n+1 is frequent (e.g. Kennedy, 2000; Kennedy, Pynte, & Ducrot, 2002). This inconsistency was investigated further by Hyona and Bertram (2004), who argued that it might be explained by parafoveal “magnetic attraction”, that is, the tendency of subjects to move their eyes towards unusual information in the parafovea. In the present paper, we address a slightly different issue: can orthographic information from word n+1 facilitate the processing of word n as well as disrupt it? As noted above, unusual parafoveal orthographic information typically slows reading. However, a study by Inhoff, Radach, Starr, and Greenberg (2000) suggests that orthographic information might be facilitatory. They had subjects read sentences in which, in the critical condition, there was an orthographic repetition. Thus, subjects read sentences such as: 1a Did you see the picture of her mother’s mother at the meeting. (repetition) 1b Did you see the picture of her mother’s father at the meeting. (related) 1c Did you see the picture of her mother’s garden at the meeting. (unrelated) Inhoff et al. observed shorter fixation times on mother’s in the repetition and related conditions than in the unrelated condition. While this finding is quite interesting, it is also the case that the syntactic structure was somewhat unusual and, furthermore, the repetition condition may have been salient to Readers. In two experiments, we used the gaze contingent boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975) to present parafoveally repeated words in more natural reading materials. In the boundary paradigm, Readers’ eye movements are monitored and, when a Readers’ gaze crosses an invisible boundary location, a preview (that is, pre-display change) word (usually the word to the right of the boundary) is replaced by a post-display change word. Because the display change occurs during a saccade, when vision is suppressed (Matin, 1974), Readers are not typically aware of the change. This enabled us to insert parafoveal repetition previews into our stimuli without Readers becoming aware of their presence. As in other boundary experiments, we then examined the amount of time during which Readers fixated pre-boundary (target) and the post-boundary (post-target) word as a function of what the preview for the post-boundary word had been. In Experiment 1, there were four conditions as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 Condition examples and display change procedure in Experiment 1 In the identical control condition, although there was a display change, the preview was changed to an identical post-change word. In the repetition condition, while Readers were looking at the target word news, the preview was also news, while in the unrelated condition it was warm and in the random letter condition it was a string of unrelated letters. As soon as the Readers’ eyes crossed the boundary location, the preview changed to the post-target word once. In Experiment 2, we investigated whether any facilitation associated with repetition was mediated by orthographic or semantic information by adding previews that shared either orthographic (niws) or semantic (tale) properties with the target word.

  • CogSci - Modeling Concept Activation in Working Memory during Online Sentence Processing
    Cognitive Science, 2012
    Co-Authors: Patrick Plummer, Hsueh-cheng Wang, Marc Pomplun, Yuhtsuen Tzeng, Keith Rayner
    Abstract:

    Modeling Concept Activation in Working Memory during Online Sentence Processing Patrick Plummer (pplummer@ucsd.edu) Hsueh-Cheng Wang (hchengwang@gmail.com) Yuhtsuen Tzeng (ttcytt@ccu.edu.tw) Marc Pomplun (marc@cs.umb.edu) Keith Rayner (krayner@ucsd.edu) Department of Psychology, University of California at San Diego, USA Department of Computer Science, University of Massachusetts at Boston, 100 Morrissey Boulevard, Boston, MA 02125 USA Center for Teacher Education & Institute of Curriculum, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan Abstract identification of phonological/semantic form and completion of lexical access). The Model also maintains that the predictability effect is stronger in L2 than in L1. Estimates of word predictability are typically derived from a modified cloze task procedure (Taylor, 1953) in which subjects are asked to guess the identity of a word when given the prior sentence context. Most reading studies utilize the cloze task to establish or confirm word predictability manipulations. These experiments use target words that differ substantially in cloze value (the probability with which subjects select the word), often with probabilities of .70 to .90 for highly predictable words and less than .10 for “low” predictability words. As an alternative to necessarily subjective cloze responses, several computational methods have been successfully utilized to approximate degrees of contextual constraint and predict the influence on eye movements during reading; including, transitional probabilities (McDonald and Shillcock, 2003; but see Frisson, Rayner, & Pickering, 2005), surprisal (Boston, Hale, Kliegl, Patil, and Vasishth, 2008; Levy, 2008), conditional co-occurrence probability (Ong and Kliegl, 2008). Additionally, Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) (Landauer & Dumais, 1997) was used by Pynte, New, and Kennedy (2008) as well as Wang, Chen, Ko, Pomplun, and Rayner (2010), who reported that eye movement behavior during first-pass reading on content words could be predicted using LSA. McDonald and Shillcock (2003) and Wang et al. (2010) used the transitional probability (corpus-based statistical likelihood of encountering a word given the preceding or subsequent word) to categorize predictability conditions; both proposing that predictability effects could be accounted for using only the content word preceding a target. One limitation of these objective measures could be that prior context, before the immediately preceding lexical item, may affect processing of a word in many instances. Wang et al. (2010) also used all concepts in the preceding sentence context to compute contextual constraint for targets using the standard weighting from LSA. However, without a clearer understanding of working memory constraints There have been several computational alternatives to the cloze task (Taylor, 1953) intended to approximate word predictability effects on eye movements during reading. In this study, we implement a computational Model that instantiates each content word in a sentence as an input that activates semantic concepts in working memory. The predictability of a word is then determined by the extent to which its corresponding semantic representation is associated with the network of concepts already active in working memory from the preceding context. The computation of concept activation is based on a connectionist Model (Landscape Model, see van den Broek, 2010). Latent semantic analysis (LSA) is used to establish connections between words and simulate the long-term semantic associations among concepts (Landauer & Dumais, 1997). This Model provides a means of investigating how language comprehension and eye movement behavior are affected by the activation of concepts in working memory. Keywords: eye movements; reading; word predictability; latent semantic analysis; Landscape Model. Introduction It has been well-established that eye movement behavior is affected by lexical variables such as frequency and predictability (Rayner, 1998; 2009). As such, the eye movement record provides an indication of language processing as it unfolds during normal reading. Rayner and Well (1996; see also Ehrlich & Rayner, 1981) found that the predictability of target words had a strong influence on eye movements during reading. In their experiment, subjects fixated unpredictable target words longer than either highly or moderately predictable target words; highly predictable words were also skipped more often than moderately predictable or unpredictable target words. Accordingly, in the E-Z Reader Model (Pollatsek, Reichle, & Rayner, 2006; Reichle, Pollatsek, Fisher, & Rayner, 1998; Reichle, Rayner, & Pollatsek, 1999; 2003), word predictability within a given sentence context is considered in both first stage processing (i.e., L1, including identification of orthographic form and a familiarity check) and second stage processing (i.e., L2, including

  • Eye movements in reading versus nonreading tasks: Using E-Z Reader to understand the role of word/stimulus familiarity
    Visual cognition, 2012
    Co-Authors: Erik D. Reichle, Keith Rayner, Alexander Pollatsek
    Abstract:

    In this article, we extend our previous work (Reichle, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 2012) using the principles of the E-Z Reader Model to examine the factors that determine when and where the eyes move in both reading and non-reading tasks, and in particular the role that word/stimulus familiarity plays in determining when the eyes move from one word/stimulus to the next. In doing this, we first provide a brief overview of E-Z Reader, including its assumption that word familiarity is the "engine" driving eye movements during reading. We then review the theoretical considerations that motivated this assumption, as well as recent empirical evidence supporting its validity. We also report the results of three new simulations that were intended to demonstrate the utility of the familiarity check in three tasks: (1) reading; (2) searching for a target word in embedded in text; and (3) searching for the letter O in linear arrays of Landolt Cs. The results of these simulations suggest that the familiarity check always improves task efficiency by speeding its rate of performance. We provide several arguments as to why this conclusion is not likely to be true for the two non-reading tasks, and in the final section of the paper, we provide a fourth simulation to test the hypothesis that problems associated with the mis-identification of words may also curtail the too liberal use of word familiarity.

Alexander Pollatsek - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Eye movements in reading versus nonreading tasks: Using E-Z Reader to understand the role of word/stimulus familiarity
    Visual cognition, 2012
    Co-Authors: Erik D. Reichle, Keith Rayner, Alexander Pollatsek
    Abstract:

    In this article, we extend our previous work (Reichle, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 2012) using the principles of the E-Z Reader Model to examine the factors that determine when and where the eyes move in both reading and non-reading tasks, and in particular the role that word/stimulus familiarity plays in determining when the eyes move from one word/stimulus to the next. In doing this, we first provide a brief overview of E-Z Reader, including its assumption that word familiarity is the "engine" driving eye movements during reading. We then review the theoretical considerations that motivated this assumption, as well as recent empirical evidence supporting its validity. We also report the results of three new simulations that were intended to demonstrate the utility of the familiarity check in three tasks: (1) reading; (2) searching for a target word in embedded in text; and (3) searching for the letter O in linear arrays of Landolt Cs. The results of these simulations suggest that the familiarity check always improves task efficiency by speeding its rate of performance. We provide several arguments as to why this conclusion is not likely to be true for the two non-reading tasks, and in the final section of the paper, we provide a fourth simulation to test the hypothesis that problems associated with the mis-identification of words may also curtail the too liberal use of word familiarity.

  • Using E-Z Reader to simulate eye movements in nonreading tasks: a unified framework for understanding the eye-mind link
    Psychological review, 2012
    Co-Authors: Erik D. Reichle, Alexander Pollatsek, Keith Rayner
    Abstract:

    Nonreading tasks that share some (but not all) of the task demands of reading have often been used to make inferences about how cognition influences when the eyes move during reading. In this article, we use variants of the E-Z Reader Model of eye-movement control in reading to simulate eye-movement behavior in several of these tasks, including z-string reading, target-word search, and visual search of Landolt Cs arranged in both linear and circular arrays. These simulations demonstrate that a single computational framework is sufficient to simulate eye movements in both reading and nonreading tasks but also suggest that there are task-specific differences in both saccadic targeting (i.e., decisions about where to move the eyes) and the coupling between saccadic programming and the movement of attention (i.e., decisions about when to move the eyes). These findings suggest that some aspects of the eye-mind link are flexible and can be configured in a manner that supports efficient task performance.

  • Immediate and delayed effects of word frequency and word length on eye movements in reading: a reversed delayed effect of word length.
    Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2008
    Co-Authors: Alexander Pollatsek, Barbara J. Juhasz, Erik D. Reichle, Debra Machacek, Keith Rayner
    Abstract:

    Three experiments examined the effects in sentence reading of varying the frequency and length of an adjective on (a) fixations on the adjective and (b) fixations on the following noun. The gaze duration on the adjective was longer for low frequency than for high frequency adjectives and longer for long adjectives than for short adjectives. This contrasted with the spillover effects: Gaze durations on the noun were longer when adjectives were low frequency but were actually shorter when the adjectives were long. The latter effect, which seems anomalous, can be explained by three mechanisms: (a) Fixations on the noun are less optimal after short adjectives because of less optimal targeting; (b) shorter adjectives are more difficult to process because they have more neighbors; and (c) prior fixations before skips are less advantageous places to extract parafoveal information. The viability of these hypotheses as explanations of this reverse length effect on the noun was examined in simulations using an updated version of the E-Z Reader Model (A. Pollatsek, K. Reichle, & E. D. Rayner, 2006c; E. D. Reichle, A. Pollatsek, D. L. Fisher, & K. Rayner, 1998).

  • Extending the E-Z Reader Model of Eye Movement Control to Chinese Readers.
    Cognitive science, 2007
    Co-Authors: Keith Rayner, Alexander Pollatsek
    Abstract:

    Chinese Readers' eye movements were simulated in the context of the E-Z Reader Model, which was developed to account for the eye movements of Readers of English. Despite obvious differences between English and Chinese, the Model did a fairly good job of simulating the eye movements of Chinese Readers. The successful simulation suggests that the control of eye movements in reading Chinese is similar to that in an alphabetic language such as English.

  • Modeling the effects of lexical ambiguity on eye movements during reading
    Eye Movements, 2007
    Co-Authors: Erik D. Reichle, Alexander Pollatsek, Keith Rayner
    Abstract:

    Publisher Summary The eye movements of Readers are affected by both the meaning dominance of an ambiguous word and whether prior sentence context disambiguates the meaning. These findings have been used to support claims about the role of linguistic constraints on word identification. The adequacy of these claims has not been evaluated, that is, it is not known if the assumptions that have been made to account for the effects of lexical ambiguity resolution on eye movements are sufficient to explain these effects. This chapter discusses the E-Z Reader Model of eye-movement control during reading that is used as a framework to evaluate the theoretical assumptions that have been developed to explain lexical ambiguity resolution. This Modeling exercise is informative because it demonstrates that not all accounts of lexical ambiguity are equally viable, and because it suggests further constraints on the types of cognitive processes that drive eye movements during reading.

Eyal M. Reingold - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Why does removing inter-word spaces produce reading deficits? The role of parafoveal processing
    Psychonomic bulletin & review, 2016
    Co-Authors: Heather Sheridan, Erik D. Reichle, Eyal M. Reingold
    Abstract:

    To examine the role of inter-word spaces during reading, we used a gaze-contingent boundary paradigm to manipulate parafoveal preview (i.e., valid vs. invalid preview) in a normal text condition that contained spaces (e.g., "John decided to sell the table") and in an unsegmented text condition that contained random numbers instead of spaces (e.g.,"John4decided8to5sell9the7table"). Preview effects on mean first-fixation durations were larger for normal than unsegmented text conditions, and survival analyses revealed a delay in the onset of both preview validity and word-frequency effects on first-fixation durations for unsegmented relative to normal text. Taken together with simulations that were conducted using the E-Z Reader Model, the present findings indicated that unsegmented text deficits reflect disruptions to both parafoveal processing and lexical processing. We discuss the implications of our results for Models of eye-movement control.

  • a further examination of the lexical processing stages hypothesized by the e z Reader Model
    Attention Perception & Psychophysics, 2013
    Co-Authors: Heather Sheridan, Eyal M. Reingold
    Abstract:

    Participants’ eye movements were monitored while they read sentences in which high- and low-frequency target words were presented normally (i.e., the normal condition) or with either reduced stimulus quality (i.e., the faint condition) or alternating lower- and uppercase letters (i.e., the case-alternated condition). Both the stimulus quality and case alternation manipulations interacted with word frequency for the gaze duration measure, such that the magnitude of word frequency effects was increased relative to the normal condition. However, stimulus quality (but not case alternation) interacted with word frequency for the early fixation time measures (i.e., first fixation, single fixation), whereas case alternation (but not stimulus quality) interacted with word frequency for the later fixation time measures (i.e., total time, go-past time). We interpret this pattern of results as evidence that stimulus quality influences an earlier stage of lexical processing than does case alternation, and we discuss the implications of our results for Models of eye movement control during reading.

  • examining the word identification stages hypothesized by the e z Reader Model
    Psychological Science, 2006
    Co-Authors: Eyal M. Reingold, Keith Rayner
    Abstract:

    A critical prediction of the E-Z Reader Model is that experimental manipulations that disrupt early encoding of visual and orthographic features of the fixated word without affecting subsequent lexical processing should influence the processing difficulty of the fixated word without affecting the processing of the next word. We tested this prediction by monitoring participants' eye movements while they read sentences in which a target word was presented either normally or altered. In the critical condition, the contrast between the target word and the background was substantially reduced. Such a reduction in stimulus quality is typically assumed to have an impact that is largely confined to a very early stage of word recognition. Results were consistent with the E-Z Reader Model: This faint presentation had a robust influence on the duration of fixations on the target word without substantially altering the processing of the next word.

  • Eye-movement control in reading: Models and predictions
    Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2003
    Co-Authors: Eyal M. Reingold
    Abstract:

    It is argued here that a critical prediction of the E-Z Reader Model is that experimental manipulations that disrupt early encoding of visual and orthographic features of the fixated word without affecting subsequent lexical processing should influence the processing difficulty of the fixated word without producing any processing effect on the next word. This prediction is explained and illustrated.

Albrecht W. Inhoff - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Eye movements in reading and information processing: Keith Rayner’s 40 year legacy
    Journal of Memory and Language, 2016
    Co-Authors: Charles Clifton, Erik D. Reichle, Albrecht W. Inhoff, Fernanda Ferreira, John M. Henderson, Simon Paul Liversedge, Elizabeth R Schotter
    Abstract:

    Keith Rayner’s extraordinary scientific career revolutionized the field of reading research and had a major impact on almost all areas of cognitive psychology. In this article, we review some of his most significant contributions. We begin with Rayner’s research on eye movement control, including the development of paradigms for answering questions about the perceptual span and its relationship to attention, reading experience, and linguistic variables. From there we proceed to lexical processing, where we summarize Rayner’s work on effects of word frequency, length, predictability, and the resolution of lexical ambiguity. Next, we turn to syntactic and discourse processing, covering the well-known garden-path Model of parsing and briefly reviewing studies of pronoun resolution and inferencing. The next section shifts from language to visual cognition and reviews research which makes use of eye movement techniques to investigate object and scene processing. Next, we summarize Rayner and colleagues’ approach to computational Modeling, with a description of the E-Z Reader Model linking attention and lexical processing to eye movement control. The final section discusses the issues Rayner and his colleagues were focused on most recently and considers how Rayner’s legacy will continue into the future.

  • Extraction of Linguistic Information From Successive Words During Reading: Evidence for Spatially Distributed Lexical Processing
    Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance, 2012
    Co-Authors: Chin-an Wang, Albrecht W. Inhoff
    Abstract:

    Two experiments examined whether word recognition progressed from one word to the next during reading, as maintained by sequential attention shift Models such as the E-Z Reader Model. The boundary technique was used to control the visibility of to-be-identified short target words, so that they were either previewed in the parafovea or masked. The eyes skipped a masked target on more than a quarter of the trials, and the following fixation must have been mislocated, if word recognition and saccade targeting progressed from one word to the next. Readers responded to the skipping parafoveally masked target words with relatively long viewing duration for the following posttarget word or with corrective saccades that returned the eyes from the posttarget word to the target. Experiment 2 manipulated the time-line of posttarget onset after target skipping, so that the posttarget word was either visible immediately upon fixation or after a short delay. The delay influenced posttarget viewing even when attention should have been focused at the target location according to E-Z Reader 10 simulations. These findings favor theoretical conceptions according to which lexical processing can encompass more than one word at a time.

  • Word integration and regression programming during reading: a test of the E-Z Reader 10 Model
    Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance, 2009
    Co-Authors: Albrecht W. Inhoff, Seth N. Greenberg, Matthew Solomon, Chin-an Wang
    Abstract:

    Participants read sentences with two types of target nouns, one that did and one that did not require a determiner to form a legal verb-noun phrase sequence. Sentences were presented with and without the critical determiner to create a local noun integration difficulty when a required determiner was missing. The absence of a required determiner did not influence 1st-pass reading of the verb, the noun, and the posttarget word. It did, however, have a profound effect on 2nd-pass reading. All three words were a likely target of a regression when a required determiner was missing, and the noun and the posttarget word were likely sources of a regression. These results are consistent with novel E-Z Reader Model assumptions, according to which identification of the noun should be followed by its integration, and integration difficulties can lead to the initiation of a regression to the noun. However, integration difficulties influenced eye movements earlier and later than predicted by the new Model.

  • Selection for fixation and selection for orthographic processing need not coincide
    Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2003
    Co-Authors: Albrecht W. Inhoff, Kelly Shindler
    Abstract:

    The E-Z Reader Model assumes that the parafoveal selection for fixation and the subsequent selection for attention allocation encompass the same spatially distinct letter cluster. Recent data suggest, however, that an individual letter sequence is selected for fixation and that more than one letter sequence can be selected for attention allocation (processing).