The Experts below are selected from a list of 91371 Experts worldwide ranked by ideXlab platform
Menachem Elimelech - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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combined organic and colloidal Fouling in forward osmosis Fouling reversibility and the role of applied pressure
Journal of Membrane Science, 2014Co-Authors: Menachem Elimelech, Ho Kyong Shon, Seungkwan HongAbstract:Abstract In this study, we systematically investigated the propensity and reversibility of combined organic–colloidal Fouling in forward osmosis (FO) under various solution chemistries (pH and calcium ion concentrations) and applied hydraulic pressure on the feed side. Alginate, silica colloids, and their mixture (i.e., combined organic–colloidal) were used as model foulants. Our findings demonstrate that combined organic–colloidal foulants caused more rapid flux decline than the individual foulants due to the synergistic effect of alginate and silica colloids. As a result, much lower flux recovery was achieved by physical cleaning induced by increasing the cross-flow rate, in contrast to single foulants of which the Fouling layer was easily removed under all solution conditions. Interestingly, less flux decline was observed at neutral pH for combined Fouling, while acidic conditions were favorable for alginate Fouling and basic solutions caused more silica Fouling, thereby providing clear evidence for the combined Fouling effect. It was also found that calcium ions enhanced water flux decline and induced the formation of less reversible combined organic–colloidal Fouling layers. Lastly, the role of applied hydraulic pressure on the feed side in FO was examined to elucidate the mechanism of Fouling layer formation, Fouling reversibility, and water flux recovery. Higher Fouling propensity and lower Fouling reversibility of combined organic–colloidal Fouling were observed in the presence of applied hydraulic pressure on the feed side. This observation suggests that the lower Fouling propensity and greater Fouling reversibility in FO compared to reverse osmosis (RO), are attributable to unpressurized operating conditions in FO.
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colloidal Fouling in forward osmosis role of reverse salt diffusion
Journal of Membrane Science, 2012Co-Authors: Chanhee Boo, Menachem Elimelech, Sangyoup Lee, Zhiyong Meng, Seungkwan HongAbstract:a b s t r a c t Colloidal Fouling behavior in forward osmosis (FO) was investigated, focusing on the role of reverse salt diffusion. Two suspensions of silica nanoparticles, with average particle diameters of 24 and 139 nm, were used as model colloidal foulants. To verify the effect of reverse salt diffusion on the colloidal Fouling behavior, NaCl and LaCl3 were employed as draw solutions because they exhibit different reverse diffusion rates. Our results suggest that in colloidal Fouling of FO, salts diffuse from the draw to the feed solution and accumulate within the colloidal Fouling layer that forms on the membrane surface. The accumulated salts result in a marked acceleration of cake-enhanced osmotic pressure (CEOP), which reduces the net osmotic driving force for permeate water flux. Fouling was not observed with the small, 24-nm particles because of the lack of substantial cake formation, but was notable for the 139-nm particles and for a feed containing a mixture of the 24 and 139 nm particles. Our findings further indicate that colloidal Fouling is enhanced under solution conditions (ionic strength and pH) within the colloidal cake layer that promote aggregation or destabilization of the silica particles. Colloidal Fouling reversibility was also examined by varying the cross-flow velocity during the FO Fouling runs. We showed that in the absence of colloidal particle destabilization/aggregation, the permeate flux during colloidal Fouling in FO recovered almost completely when the cross-flow velocity was increased from 8.5 to 25.6 cm/s. Our results suggest that reverse salt diffusion in FO is a key mechanism that controls colloidal Fouling behavior as well as Fouling reversibility. Therefore, minimization of reverse salt diffusion through the selection of proper draw solutes and optimization of FO membrane selectivity are important for minimizing colloidal Fouling as well as enhancing FO operation efficiency.
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chemical and physical aspects of organic Fouling of forward osmosis membranes
Journal of Membrane Science, 2008Co-Authors: Menachem ElimelechAbstract:Abstract The growing attention to forward osmosis (FO) membrane processes from various disciplines raises the demand for systematic research on FO membrane Fouling. This study investigates the role of various physical and chemical interactions, such as intermolecular adhesion forces, calcium binding, initial permeate flux, and membrane orientation, in organic Fouling of forward osmosis membranes. Alginate, bovine serum albumin (BSA), and Aldrich humic acid (AHA) were chosen as model organic foulants. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to quantify the intermolecular adhesion forces between the foulant and the clean or fouled membrane in order to better understand the Fouling mechanisms. A strong correlation between organic Fouling and intermolecular adhesion was observed, indicating that foulant–foulant interaction plays an important role in determining the rate and extent of organic Fouling. The Fouling data showed that FO Fouling is governed by the coupled influence of chemical and hydrodynamic interactions. Calcium binding, permeation drag, and hydrodynamic shear force are the major factors governing the development of a Fouling layer on the membrane surface. However, the dominating factors controlling membrane Fouling vary from foulant to foulant. With stronger intermolecular adhesion forces, hydrodynamic conditions for favorable foulant deposition leading to cake formation are more readily attained. Before a compact cake layer is formed, the Fouling rate is affected by both the intermolecular adhesion forces and hydrodynamic conditions. However, once the cake layer forms, all three foulants have very similar flux decline rates, and further changes in hydrodynamic conditions do not influence Fouling behavior.
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protein bsa Fouling of reverse osmosis membranes implications for wastewater reclamation
Journal of Membrane Science, 2007Co-Authors: Wui Seng Ang, Menachem ElimelechAbstract:Abstract Effluent organic matter (EfOM) has been known to contribute significantly to organic Fouling of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes in advanced wastewater reclamation. In this study, the effects of feed solution chemistry (calcium concentration, ionic strength, and solution pH) and feed foulant composition on Fouling of RO membranes by bovine serum albumin (BSA) – selected to represent proteins in EfOM – are investigated. Crossflow Fouling experiments show that RO membrane Fouling by BSA is enhanced at higher calcium concentration and at a solution pH at the BSA isoelectric point (pH 4.7). It is further demonstrated that BSA Fouling of RO membranes is significantly enhanced in the presence of alginate (a model polysaccharide) as co-foulant. There appears to be an initial synergistic Fouling effect when RO membranes are fouled by both BSA and alginate, as compared to Fouling by BSA or alginate alone. Foulant–foulant adhesion forces, determined by AFM force measurements under solution chemistries identical to those of the crossflow Fouling experiments, further confirm the trends of the Fouling profiles. It is consistently shown that solution chemistries and foulant compositions that induce higher Fouling rates are associated with greater foulant–foulant adhesion forces.
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chemical and physical aspects of natural organic matter nom Fouling of nanofiltration membranes
Journal of Membrane Science, 1997Co-Authors: Seungkwan Hong, Menachem ElimelechAbstract:The role of chemical and physical interactions in natural organic matter (NOM) Fouling of nanofiltration membranes is systematically investigated. Results of Fouling experiments with three humic acids demonstrate that membrane Fouling increases with increasing electrolyte (NaC1) concentration, decreasing solution pH, and addition of divalent cations (Ca2+). At fixed solution ionic strength, the presence of calcium ions, at concentrations typical of those found in natural waters, has a marked effect on membrane Fouling. Divalent cations interact specifically with humic carboxyl functional groups and, thus, substantially reduce humic charge and the electrostatic repulsion between humic macromolecules. Reduced NOM interchain repulsion results in increased NOM deposition on the membrane surface and formation of a densely packed Fouling layer. In addition to the aforementioned chemical effects, results show that NOM Fouling rate increases substantially with increasing initial permeation rate. It is demonstrated that the rate of Fouling is controlled by an interplay between permeation drag and electrostatic double layer repulsion; that is, NOM Fouling of NF membranes involves interrelationship (coupling) between physical and chemical interactions. The addition of a strong chelating agent (EDTA) to feed water reduces NOM Fouling significantly by removing free and NOM-complexed calcium ions. EDTA treatment of NOM-fouled membranes also improves the cleaning efficiency dramatically by disrupting the Fouling layer structure through a ligand exchange reaction between EDTA and NOM-calcium complexes.
Laurent Bazinet - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Fouling on ion exchange membranes classification characterization and strategies of prevention and control
Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2016Co-Authors: Sergey Mikhaylin, Laurent BazinetAbstract:The environmentally friendly ion-exchange membrane (IEM) processes find more and more applications in the modern industries in order to demineralize, concentrate and modify products. Moreover, these processes may be applied for the energy conversion and storage. However, the main drawback of the IEM processes is a formation of Fouling, which significantly decreases the process efficiency and increases the process cost. The present review is dedicated to the problematic of IEM Fouling phenomena. Firstly, the major types of IEM Fouling such as colloidal Fouling, organic Fouling, scaling and bioFouling are discussed along with consideration of the main factors affecting Fouling formation and development. Secondly, the review of the possible methods of IEM Fouling characterization is provided. This section includes the methods of Fouling visualization and characterization as well as methods allowing investigations of characteristics of the fouled IEMs. Eventually, the reader will find the conventional and modern strategies of prevention and control of different Fouling types.
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Bilayered Self-Oriented Membrane Fouling and Impact of Magnesium on CaCO3 Formation during Consecutive Electrodialysis Treatments
Langmuir, 2015Co-Authors: Christophe Casademont, Gérald Pourcelly, Laurent BazinetAbstract:Fouling of membrane is the major scientific lock for electromembrane process intensification limiting their applications. The Fouling evolution on ion-exchange membranes was monitored during three consecutive electrodialysis treatments of a solution containing a high magnesium/calcium ratio. Following these experiments, we proposed a mechanism to explain the change in Fouling nature on the CEM from a mix of calcite, brucite, and portlandite after the first ED run to a predominant amorphous Mg(OH)2 after the third run and the formation of calcite cubic crystal on the AEM, although Mg2+, an inhibitor of CaCO3 formation, was present in the solution. It was also demonstrated that the nature and structure of the AEM and CEM Foulings formed were self-oriented by the formation of the CEM first layer of Fouling appearing during the first run. Our findings have implications for electromembrane process Fouling control as well as in the understanding of CaCO3 crystallization phenomena.
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Electrodialysis of model salt solution containing whey proteins: Enhancement by pulsed electric field and modified cell configuration
Journal of Membrane Science, 2009Co-Authors: Christophe Casademont, Gérald Pourcelly, Philippe Sistat, Benjanin Ruiz, Laurent BazinetAbstract:Recent work carried-out on conventional electrodialysis of model solutions containing whey proteins and/or salts (CaCl2, MgCl2) showed significant ion-exchange membrane Foulings, one of the major problems of this process. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of using pulsed electrical field in a new electrodialysis (ED) configuration to prevent the ion-exchange membrane Fouling and to enhance the ED process. The main objectives of the present work were to test a new cell configuration and to study the effect of pulsed electrical field on Fouling and electrodialytic parameters. The results obtained showed that a pulsed electrical field coupled to a separated feed of the concentrate compartments led to the higher demineralization rate (79.5%) without membrane Fouling and excessive energy consumption compared to the other treatments. This study also showed that the pulsed electrical field applied in combination with the classical configuration decreased the mineral Fouling observed in basic conditions (16% for Ca and 24% for Mg) and the protein Fouling observed in acidic condition (decrease by 18%).
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impact of electrodialytic parameters on cation migration kinetics and Fouling nature of ion exchange membranes during treatment of solutions with different magnesium calcium ratios
Journal of Membrane Science, 2008Co-Authors: Christophe Casademont, Monica Araya Farias, Gérald Pourcelly, Laurent BazinetAbstract:Abstract During electrodialysis (ED) treatment of solutions with different Mg/Ca ratios ( R = 0, 1/20, 1/10, 1/5 and 2/5) and in different pH conditions (acid, neutral and basic), Foulings on ion-exchange membranes were previously characterized and identified, by the way of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses. A mineral Fouling was observed in neutral and basic conditions (for R = 1/5 and 2/5) on the anion-exchange membrane (AEM) concentrate side and in basic conditions on the cation-exchange membrane (CEM) concentrate side as well as on the diluate side for R = 1/5 and 2/5. The objectives of this present work were to link the morphological characterization and identification of membrane Fouling to electrodialytic parameters and cation migration kinetics. It appeared that the CEM permselectivity was severely affected in basic conditions for R ≥ 1/5. The consequence of this alteration was the migration of OH − through the CEM, a pH increase in the diluate compartment and different treatment durations. The calcite observed on AEM concentrate side for Mg/Ca ≥ 1/5 would be due first to the particular operating conditions such as the recirculation of the concentrate solution, and also to the supersaturated conditions reached or not at the AEM interface and favourable pH conditions.
Seungkwan Hong - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Fouling potential evaluation by cake Fouling index: Theoretical development, measurements, and its implications for Fouling mechanisms
Journal of Membrane Science, 2015Co-Authors: Yongxun Jin, Hyunkyung Lee, Seungkwan HongAbstract:Current Fouling indices typically employed in RO practices, such as silt density index (SDI) and modified Fouling index (MFI), have suffered greatly from their inability to predict actual Fouling potential primarily due to the erroneous interpretation of Fouling mechanisms. Our findings clearly demonstrated that the effect of pore blocking should be excluded during Fouling index measurements to simulate real RO applications. Thus, new concept of cake Fouling index (CFI) was developed in order to accurately evaluate true Fouling cake layer resistance. Specifically, the CFI was determined through consecutive filtration tests by subtracting the flux decline of the secondary filtration from that of the first one to eliminate the effect of pore blocking. The results proved that CFI better predicts the degree of Fouling rate in RO experiments than MFI. It was also revealed that it could be utilized as a useful tool for identifying and evaluating the Fouling mechanisms. Through a comparison of MFI and CFI, it was shown that pore blocking was enhanced as much as cake formation when pH decreased, while divalent cations (Ca2+) increased only cake formation on the membrane surface. This newly developed index refining existing MFI method is expected to provide more precise information about RO membrane Fouling, especially for the design of effective pretreatment processes.
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combined organic and colloidal Fouling in forward osmosis Fouling reversibility and the role of applied pressure
Journal of Membrane Science, 2014Co-Authors: Menachem Elimelech, Ho Kyong Shon, Seungkwan HongAbstract:Abstract In this study, we systematically investigated the propensity and reversibility of combined organic–colloidal Fouling in forward osmosis (FO) under various solution chemistries (pH and calcium ion concentrations) and applied hydraulic pressure on the feed side. Alginate, silica colloids, and their mixture (i.e., combined organic–colloidal) were used as model foulants. Our findings demonstrate that combined organic–colloidal foulants caused more rapid flux decline than the individual foulants due to the synergistic effect of alginate and silica colloids. As a result, much lower flux recovery was achieved by physical cleaning induced by increasing the cross-flow rate, in contrast to single foulants of which the Fouling layer was easily removed under all solution conditions. Interestingly, less flux decline was observed at neutral pH for combined Fouling, while acidic conditions were favorable for alginate Fouling and basic solutions caused more silica Fouling, thereby providing clear evidence for the combined Fouling effect. It was also found that calcium ions enhanced water flux decline and induced the formation of less reversible combined organic–colloidal Fouling layers. Lastly, the role of applied hydraulic pressure on the feed side in FO was examined to elucidate the mechanism of Fouling layer formation, Fouling reversibility, and water flux recovery. Higher Fouling propensity and lower Fouling reversibility of combined organic–colloidal Fouling were observed in the presence of applied hydraulic pressure on the feed side. This observation suggests that the lower Fouling propensity and greater Fouling reversibility in FO compared to reverse osmosis (RO), are attributable to unpressurized operating conditions in FO.
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colloidal Fouling in forward osmosis role of reverse salt diffusion
Journal of Membrane Science, 2012Co-Authors: Chanhee Boo, Menachem Elimelech, Sangyoup Lee, Zhiyong Meng, Seungkwan HongAbstract:a b s t r a c t Colloidal Fouling behavior in forward osmosis (FO) was investigated, focusing on the role of reverse salt diffusion. Two suspensions of silica nanoparticles, with average particle diameters of 24 and 139 nm, were used as model colloidal foulants. To verify the effect of reverse salt diffusion on the colloidal Fouling behavior, NaCl and LaCl3 were employed as draw solutions because they exhibit different reverse diffusion rates. Our results suggest that in colloidal Fouling of FO, salts diffuse from the draw to the feed solution and accumulate within the colloidal Fouling layer that forms on the membrane surface. The accumulated salts result in a marked acceleration of cake-enhanced osmotic pressure (CEOP), which reduces the net osmotic driving force for permeate water flux. Fouling was not observed with the small, 24-nm particles because of the lack of substantial cake formation, but was notable for the 139-nm particles and for a feed containing a mixture of the 24 and 139 nm particles. Our findings further indicate that colloidal Fouling is enhanced under solution conditions (ionic strength and pH) within the colloidal cake layer that promote aggregation or destabilization of the silica particles. Colloidal Fouling reversibility was also examined by varying the cross-flow velocity during the FO Fouling runs. We showed that in the absence of colloidal particle destabilization/aggregation, the permeate flux during colloidal Fouling in FO recovered almost completely when the cross-flow velocity was increased from 8.5 to 25.6 cm/s. Our results suggest that reverse salt diffusion in FO is a key mechanism that controls colloidal Fouling behavior as well as Fouling reversibility. Therefore, minimization of reverse salt diffusion through the selection of proper draw solutes and optimization of FO membrane selectivity are important for minimizing colloidal Fouling as well as enhancing FO operation efficiency.
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Evaluation of organic matter Fouling potential by membrane Fouling index
Water Supply, 2007Co-Authors: Chanhyuk Park, Seungkwan Hong, Hyun-taek Kim, S Lee, Suna ChoiAbstract:The membrane Fouling index, widely used in the reverse osmosis (RO) membrane industry, is developed mainly to assess the Fouling potential of particulate matter. However, the Fouling potential by organic matter should also be accurately evaluated as the productivity loss by organic Fouling is often more severe than particle Fouling, despite its low concentration in feed water. This study was performed to investigate the influence of organic characteristics and feed water solution chemistry on the membrane Fouling index, such as the silt density index (SDI). The results showed that the feed solution chemistry (i.e. pH, ionic strength and hardness) affected the SDI values of organic rich feed water to some degree. In addition, Aldrich humic acid (AHA) exhibited higher Fouling potential by SDI than Suwannee river humic acid (SRHA), emphasising the importance of organic properties. Lastly, it is shown that although SDI values measured were the same, the degree of NOM Fouling was significantly different for the membranes with different surface properties.
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chemical and physical aspects of natural organic matter nom Fouling of nanofiltration membranes
Journal of Membrane Science, 1997Co-Authors: Seungkwan Hong, Menachem ElimelechAbstract:The role of chemical and physical interactions in natural organic matter (NOM) Fouling of nanofiltration membranes is systematically investigated. Results of Fouling experiments with three humic acids demonstrate that membrane Fouling increases with increasing electrolyte (NaC1) concentration, decreasing solution pH, and addition of divalent cations (Ca2+). At fixed solution ionic strength, the presence of calcium ions, at concentrations typical of those found in natural waters, has a marked effect on membrane Fouling. Divalent cations interact specifically with humic carboxyl functional groups and, thus, substantially reduce humic charge and the electrostatic repulsion between humic macromolecules. Reduced NOM interchain repulsion results in increased NOM deposition on the membrane surface and formation of a densely packed Fouling layer. In addition to the aforementioned chemical effects, results show that NOM Fouling rate increases substantially with increasing initial permeation rate. It is demonstrated that the rate of Fouling is controlled by an interplay between permeation drag and electrostatic double layer repulsion; that is, NOM Fouling of NF membranes involves interrelationship (coupling) between physical and chemical interactions. The addition of a strong chelating agent (EDTA) to feed water reduces NOM Fouling significantly by removing free and NOM-complexed calcium ions. EDTA treatment of NOM-fouled membranes also improves the cleaning efficiency dramatically by disrupting the Fouling layer structure through a ligand exchange reaction between EDTA and NOM-calcium complexes.
Guillaume Delaplace - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Effect of casein/whey ratio on the thermal denaturation of whey proteins and subsequent Fouling in a plate heat exchanger
Journal of Food Engineering, 2021Co-Authors: Weiji Liu, Xiao Chen, Romain Jeantet, Christophe André, Séverine Bellayer, Guillaume DelaplaceAbstract:Dairy Fouling is a ubiquitous problem in food processing, however, the Fouling mechanism is not fully understood and investigations arose mainly from experiments with model systems that contained only whey proteins, typically reconstituted from whey protein isolate powder (WPI). The effect of casein on Fouling has been rarely considered despite it is the major component of milk proteins. To fill this gap, whey protein-based model fluids containing different casein concentrations and fixed content of added calcium were prepared, leading to various Casein/WPI mass ratios. The effect of Casein/WPI on β-lactoglobulin (BLG) denaturation at molecular level and subsequent Fouling behavior in the pilot-scale plate heat exchanger during pasteurization treatment was investigated. It was shown that Casein/WPI significantly affects the Fouling behavior: at low Casein/WPI, Fouling mass dropped dramatically until a minimum value was reached located at Casein/WPI of 0.2. While at higher Casein/ WPI, Fouling mass increased with elevated Casein/WPI. Element mapping of the Fouling layer also reveals that different structures and Fouling mechanisms occur depending on Casein/WPI ratio. Finally, it was established that contrary to WPI solutions, BLG thermal denaturation is poorly correlated to decrease/extent of Fouling for casein protein-based solutions showing that the presence of casein deeply modifies mineral and protein interactions and Fouling build-up.
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a mathematical model for the prediction of the whey protein Fouling mass in a pilot scale plate heat exchanger
Food Control, 2019Co-Authors: Laurent Bouvier, Alberto Tonda, Guillaume DelaplaceAbstract:Abstract A better understanding of protein Fouling during the thermal treatment of whey protein concentrate (WPC) solutions is critical for better Fouling control. In order to understand the impact of various parameters on the total whey protein Fouling mass, a dimensional analysis was applied to the experimental data obtained from a pilot scale plate heat exchanger, setting total Fouling mass as the target variable. A model was developed to predict the total Fouling mass, covering a series of variables including whey protein solution concentration (2.5–25 g/L), calcium concentration (70-120 ppm), running time (90-330 min), Fouling solution flow rate (200-500 L/h), total Fouling surface area, outlet temperature (82-97 °C) and differences in whey protein concentrate powders. In addition to temperature dimensionless parameters, the main parameters involved in the model are the Reynolds number (2000-5000) and the calcium to β-lactoglobulin molar ratio (2.7–34.7). The model developed concerns only pure whey proteins solutions since all the testing solutions were casein free. This model has allowed us to provide guidelines as to how the above parameters influence Fouling within the plate heat exchanger, as well as empirical correlations for predicting such Fouling development.
Bradley Ladewig - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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a review of reverse osmosis membrane Fouling and control strategies
Science of The Total Environment, 2017Co-Authors: Shanxue Jiang, Bradley LadewigAbstract:Reverse osmosis (RO) membrane technology is one of the most important technologies for water treatment. However, membrane Fouling is an inevitable issue. Membrane Fouling leads to higher operating pressure, flux decline, frequent chemical cleaning and shorter membrane life. This paper reviews membrane Fouling types and Fouling control strategies, with a focus on the latest developments. The fundamentals of Fouling are discussed in detail, including bioFouling, organic Fouling, inorganic scaling and colloidal Fouling. Furthermore, Fouling mitigation technologies are also discussed comprehensively. Pretreatment is widely used in practice to reduce the burden for the following RO operation while real time monitoring of RO has the advantage and potential of providing support for effective and efficient cleaning. Surface modification could slow down membrane Fouling by changing surface properties such as surface smoothness and hydrophilicity, while novel membrane materials and synthesis processes build a promising future for the next generation of RO membranes with big advancements in Fouling resistance. Especially in this review paper, statistical analysis is conducted where appropriate to reveal the research interests in RO Fouling and control.
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Fouling in Membrane Bioreactors
Fundamentals of Membrane Bioreactors, 2016Co-Authors: Bradley Ladewig, Muayad Nadhim Zemam Al-shaeliAbstract:Membrane Fouling is a stubborn problem in all membrane filtration processes, in particular membrane bioreactors because it leads to higher operating pressure, more frequent chemical cleaning, shortened membrane life and compromised product water quality. This chapter presents an exhaustive overview of membrane Fouling in membrane bioreactors. It commences by giving a concise definition of membrane Fouling and its diverse implication in the development of membrane bioreactor technology. This chapter highlights the underlying causes of membrane Fouling and its effects are also indicated. The types of membrane Fouling in membrane bioreactors are elucidated in detail. Thereafter, methods used to control or limit membrane Fouling are also outlined in this chapter. To sum up, membrane Fouling is highly complex physico-chemical problem.
