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Juhani Hassi - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Frostbites in circumpolar areas.
Global health action, 2011Co-Authors: Tiina M. Ikäheimo, Juhani HassiAbstract:Circumpolar areas are associated with prolonged cold exposure where wind, precipitation, and darkness further aggravate the environmental conditions and the associated risks. Despite the climate warming, cold climatic conditions will prevail in circumpolar areas and contribute to adverse health effects. Frostbite is a freezing injury where localized damage affects the skin and other tissues. It occurs during occupational or leisure-time activities and is common in the general population among men and women of various ages. Industries of the circumpolar areas where Frostbite occurs frequently include transportation, mining, oil, and gas industry, construction, agriculture, and military operations. Cold injuries may also occur during leisuretime activities involving substantial cold exposure, such as mountaineering, skiing, and snowmobiling. Accidental situations (occupational, leisure time) often contribute to adverse cooling and cold injuries. Several environmental (temperature, wind, wetness, cold objects, and altitude) and individual (behavior, health, and physiology) predisposing factors are connected with Frostbite injuries. Vulnerable populations include those having a chronic disease (cardiovascular, diabetes, and depression), children and the elderly, or homeless people. Frostbite results in sequelae causing different types of discomfort and functional limitations that may persist for years. A Frostbite injury is preventable, and hence, unacceptable from a public health perspective. Appropriate cold risk management includes awareness of the adverse effects of cold, individual adjustment of cold exposure and clothing, or in occupational context different organizational and technical measures. In addition, vulnerable population groups need customized information and care for proper prevention of Frostbites. Keywords: cold; Frostbite; injury; circumpolar; vulnerable; population (Published: 10 October 2011) Citation: Global Health Action 2011, 4 : 8456 - DOI: 10.3402/gha.v4i0.8456
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occurrence of Frostbite in the general population work related and individual factors
Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health, 2009Co-Authors: Tiina M. Mäkinen, Jari Jokelainen, Simo Nayha, Tiina Laatikainen, Pekka Jousilahti, Juhani HassiAbstract:Objective To examine the occurrence of Frostbite in the general population and the related risk factors. Methods We analyzed two national FINRISK studies (1997 and 2002) and their cold sub-studies (N=2624 and N=6951, respectively), consisting of questionnaires administered to men and women aged 25–74 years. Results A total of 697 Frostbites were reported, 425 of which had occurred during the past year and 272 over a lifetime according to the respondents. The overall proportion of annually occurring mild Frostbite was 12.9% (14.2% and 11.9% for men and women, respectively). The annual incidence of severe Frostbite was 1.1% (1.6% and 0.6% for men and women, respectively). The cumulative lifetime incidence of severe Frostbite was 10.6% (14.1% and 7.4% for men and women, respectively). Frostbite occurs more often in men than women and decreases in frequency over the age of 65. Most Frostbite incidents were reported among occupational groups such as skilled agricultural and fishery workers, craft and related trades workers, plant and machine operators, assemblers and technicians, and associate professionals. Work-related risk factors included employment in certain industries, high physical strain, and weekly cold exposure at work; however Frostbite was also likely to occur during leisure time. Individual factors that increase Frostbite risk are diabetes, white fingers in the cold, cardiac insufficiency, angina pectoris, stroke, depressive feelings, and heavy alcohol consumption. Conclusions Work-related and individual risk factors should be taken into account when developing risk assessment and management strategies for preventing Frostbite both at work and during leisure time.
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Prediction and Prevention of Frostbite
2005Co-Authors: Juhani Hassi, Tiina M. Maekinen, Hannu RintamaekiAbstract:Abstract : Occurrence of Frostbite: Among teenagers, the annual incidence of Frostbite in Finland was 4.1% in boys and 2.4% in girls. Lifetime experience of Frostbite was 44 % among men entering their military service. In Finland during the 6 to 12 month military service the prevalence of Frostbite was 1.9 % and sequelae of hand Frostbite were present in 63 %. Prediction of Frostbite: Individual risk factors of Frostbite (95 % CI) are Raynaud's phenomenon, (OR 1.66 3.87), hand vibration (OR 1.07 - 4.03) and current smoking (OR 1.02 3.15). Development of Frostbite is associated with fatigue, low physical activity, dehydration and use of alcohol. During military service independent risk factors for developing face and ear Frostbite were the following: not wearing a hat with earflaps or a scarf, applying protective ointment, and travelling in an open vehicle. Prevention of Frostbites: Screening before military service by e.g. a questionnaire assessing Raynaud 's phenomenon, hand vibration and current smoking enables to identify personnel that are susceptible to Frostbites. These persons may be either excluded from field operations, or be given special training on how to protect themselves. Education of officers and physicians is essential in order to be able to plan and train for winter manoeuvres. Protection from Frostbites: Each individual should be aware of the early signs indicating an increased risk of Frostbite and know how to protect themselves. Appropriate selection and use of winter clothing protects from Frostbites. Wind-proof, dry and not too tight clothing should be preferred. Exercise leading to exhaustion should be avoided. During periods of inactivity, the metabolic heat production should be increased by muscular work if possible, or alternatively use additional clothing or seek shelter. Adequate nutrition and hydration protects against Frostbites.
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The occurrence of Frostbite and its risk factors in young men.
International journal of circumpolar health, 2004Co-Authors: Ervasti O, Kimmo Juopperi, Päivi Kettunen, Jouko Remes, Hannu Rintamäki, Jari Latvala, R. Pihlajaniemi, Tapani Linna, Juhani HassiAbstract:Objectives. Previous studies have paid little attention to the occurrence of Frostbites and related risk factors. The purpose of this study is to analyse the life-time occurrence of Frostbite in young men and its association with the coldprovoked white finger syndrome (CPWF), smoking and hand vibration. Methods. The study population consisted of 5839 Finnish men aged 17-30 years entering military service. Data was collected for cases of first-degree, or more severe, Frostbite affecting the head and extremities. Logistic analysis was used to assess the risk of Frostbite with respect to CPWF, smoking and hand vibration. Results. The life-time and annual occurrences of Frostbite were 44% and 2.2%, respectively (n=2555). 2333 subjects (41%) had suffered first-degree freezing injury and 671 (12%) suffered severe injury at some time in their lives. The sites most prone to Frostbite were the head, 1668 cases (31%), followed by the hands, 1154 (20%), and the feet, 810 (15%). The risk for Frostbite in different body parts was increased among the subjects with CPWF (95 % CI: 1.66 to 3.87), regular smokers (95 % CI: 1.02 to 3.15) and those exposed to vibration (95 % CI: 1.07 to 4.03). Conclusions. A synergistic increase of Frostbite was reported between CPWF and regular smokers, and between CPWF and hand/arm vibration in both exposure classes analysed. The life-time occurrence of Frostbite among young healthy men was high. Frostbite, and its association with CPWF, smoking and hand/arm vibration should be noted by the health care personnel in circumpolar countries. (Int J Circumpolar Health 2004; 63(1):71-80) Keywords: epidemiology, freezing injury, inquiry, smoking, white finger syndrome
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Frostbite: occurrence, risk factors and consequences.
International journal of circumpolar health, 2000Co-Authors: Juhani Hassi, Tiina M. MäkinenAbstract:Frostbites affect the civilian northern population more commonly than thought earlier. Cumulative lifetime incidences may be as high as 44-68% for all types of Frostbite. Incidences of Frostbite have mainly been reported in association with military activities but occur also during occupational duties and in recreational situations. Frostbites often affect the extremities and especially the head region. Several different predisposing factors have been reported in relation to Frostbites. These can be divided mainly into environmental, individual, behavioural and occasion-linked factors. Actual risk analyses have been conducted for a limited amount of these predisposing factors. Frostbites very often result in different functional disadvantages, some of which can lead to a temporary or permanent disability to work or carry out military duties, while others may impact negatively on occupational activities, or cause hospitalization and invalidity to varying degrees. Further, Frostbites often cause sequelae lasting from a few weeks to a lifetime.
Benjamin Levi - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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spect ct in the evaluation of Frostbite
Journal of Burn Care & Research, 2017Co-Authors: Casey T. Kraft, John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Shailesh Agarwal, Stewart C. Wang, Kevin C. Chung, Benjamin LeviAbstract:Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario with multiple treatment algorithms and variable results. Currently, Frostbite management often follows a conservative approach with rewarming followed by wound care and delayed amputation. We review seven patients where single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) fused with conventional computed tomography was used to evaluate tissue viability for earlier directed debridement and limb salvage. The goal of this report is to evaluate SPECT/CT as an appropriate modality for the screening of necrotic bone for earlier amputation in patients with Frostbite. We retrospectively analyzed the records of seven patients (19 extremities) with Frostbite who received SPECT/CT scans to evaluate deep tissue necrosis before digit amputation. All patients who presented within the first 24 hr following their injury without contraindications were initially treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Three patients met criteria and were treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Of the seven patients analyzed, none required revision amputation beyond the level predicted on SPECT/CT scan. No patients had viable tissue distal to the most distal extent of bone perfusion. In six of the patients, the SPECT/CT scan led to more distal amputation with proximal debridement of soft tissues thus maintaining extremity length. Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario for which there are a wide number of clinical algorithms. SPECT/CT appears to be valuable in the evaluation of Frostbite to determine the need for amputation. Fusion of the nuclear images with the CT allows for more exact delineation of the level of amputation than a bone scan alone.
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SPECT/CT in the Evaluation of Frostbite.
Journal of burn care & research : official publication of the American Burn Association, 2017Co-Authors: Casey T. Kraft, John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Shailesh Agarwal, Stewart C. Wang, Kevin C. Chung, Benjamin LeviAbstract:Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario with multiple treatment algorithms and variable results. Currently, Frostbite management often follows a conservative approach with rewarming followed by wound care and delayed amputation. We review seven patients where single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) fused with conventional computed tomography was used to evaluate tissue viability for earlier directed debridement and limb salvage. The goal of this report is to evaluate SPECT/CT as an appropriate modality for the screening of necrotic bone for earlier amputation in patients with Frostbite. We retrospectively analyzed the records of seven patients (19 extremities) with Frostbite who received SPECT/CT scans to evaluate deep tissue necrosis before digit amputation. All patients who presented within the first 24 hr following their injury without contraindications were initially treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Three patients met criteria and were treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Of the seven patients analyzed, none required revision amputation beyond the level predicted on SPECT/CT scan. No patients had viable tissue distal to the most distal extent of bone perfusion. In six of the patients, the SPECT/CT scan led to more distal amputation with proximal debridement of soft tissues thus maintaining extremity length. Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario for which there are a wide number of clinical algorithms. SPECT/CT appears to be valuable in the evaluation of Frostbite to determine the need for amputation. Fusion of the nuclear images with the CT allows for more exact delineation of the level of amputation than a bone scan alone.
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Frostbite: Spectrum of Imaging Findings and Guidelines for Management.
Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America Inc, 2016Co-Authors: John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Benjamin Levi, Casey T. Kraft, Jon A. Jacobson, Milton D. Gross, Ka Kit WongAbstract:Frostbite is a localized cold thermal injury that results from tissue freezing. Frostbite injuries can have a substantial effect on long-term limb function and mobility if not promptly evaluated and treated. Imaging plays a critical role in initial evaluation of Frostbite injuries and in monitoring response to treatment. A multimodality approach involving radiography, digital subtraction angiography (DSA), and/or multiphase bone scintigraphy with hybrid single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/computed tomography (CT) is often necessary for optimal guidance of Frostbite care. Radiographs serve as an initial survey of the affected limb and may demonstrate characteristic findings, depending on the time course and severity of injury. DSA is used to evaluate perfusion of affected soft tissues and identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Angiography-directed thrombolysis plays an essential role in tissue preservation and salvage in deep Frostbite injuries. Multiphase bone scintigraphy with technetium 99m-labeled diphosphonate provides valuable information regarding the status of tissue viability after initial treatment. The addition of SPECT/CT to multiphase bone scintigraphy enables precise anatomic localization of the level and depth of tissue necrosis before its appearance at physical examination and can help uncover subtle findings that may remain occult at scintigraphy alone. Multiphase bone scintigraphy with SPECT/CT is the modality of choice for prognostication and planning of definitive surgical care of affected limbs. Appropriate use of imaging to direct Frostbite care can help limit the effects that these injuries have on limb function and mobility. ©RSNA, 2016.
Casey T. Kraft - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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spect ct in the evaluation of Frostbite
Journal of Burn Care & Research, 2017Co-Authors: Casey T. Kraft, John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Shailesh Agarwal, Stewart C. Wang, Kevin C. Chung, Benjamin LeviAbstract:Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario with multiple treatment algorithms and variable results. Currently, Frostbite management often follows a conservative approach with rewarming followed by wound care and delayed amputation. We review seven patients where single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) fused with conventional computed tomography was used to evaluate tissue viability for earlier directed debridement and limb salvage. The goal of this report is to evaluate SPECT/CT as an appropriate modality for the screening of necrotic bone for earlier amputation in patients with Frostbite. We retrospectively analyzed the records of seven patients (19 extremities) with Frostbite who received SPECT/CT scans to evaluate deep tissue necrosis before digit amputation. All patients who presented within the first 24 hr following their injury without contraindications were initially treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Three patients met criteria and were treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Of the seven patients analyzed, none required revision amputation beyond the level predicted on SPECT/CT scan. No patients had viable tissue distal to the most distal extent of bone perfusion. In six of the patients, the SPECT/CT scan led to more distal amputation with proximal debridement of soft tissues thus maintaining extremity length. Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario for which there are a wide number of clinical algorithms. SPECT/CT appears to be valuable in the evaluation of Frostbite to determine the need for amputation. Fusion of the nuclear images with the CT allows for more exact delineation of the level of amputation than a bone scan alone.
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SPECT/CT in the Evaluation of Frostbite.
Journal of burn care & research : official publication of the American Burn Association, 2017Co-Authors: Casey T. Kraft, John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Shailesh Agarwal, Stewart C. Wang, Kevin C. Chung, Benjamin LeviAbstract:Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario with multiple treatment algorithms and variable results. Currently, Frostbite management often follows a conservative approach with rewarming followed by wound care and delayed amputation. We review seven patients where single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) fused with conventional computed tomography was used to evaluate tissue viability for earlier directed debridement and limb salvage. The goal of this report is to evaluate SPECT/CT as an appropriate modality for the screening of necrotic bone for earlier amputation in patients with Frostbite. We retrospectively analyzed the records of seven patients (19 extremities) with Frostbite who received SPECT/CT scans to evaluate deep tissue necrosis before digit amputation. All patients who presented within the first 24 hr following their injury without contraindications were initially treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Three patients met criteria and were treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Of the seven patients analyzed, none required revision amputation beyond the level predicted on SPECT/CT scan. No patients had viable tissue distal to the most distal extent of bone perfusion. In six of the patients, the SPECT/CT scan led to more distal amputation with proximal debridement of soft tissues thus maintaining extremity length. Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario for which there are a wide number of clinical algorithms. SPECT/CT appears to be valuable in the evaluation of Frostbite to determine the need for amputation. Fusion of the nuclear images with the CT allows for more exact delineation of the level of amputation than a bone scan alone.
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Frostbite: Spectrum of Imaging Findings and Guidelines for Management.
Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America Inc, 2016Co-Authors: John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Benjamin Levi, Casey T. Kraft, Jon A. Jacobson, Milton D. Gross, Ka Kit WongAbstract:Frostbite is a localized cold thermal injury that results from tissue freezing. Frostbite injuries can have a substantial effect on long-term limb function and mobility if not promptly evaluated and treated. Imaging plays a critical role in initial evaluation of Frostbite injuries and in monitoring response to treatment. A multimodality approach involving radiography, digital subtraction angiography (DSA), and/or multiphase bone scintigraphy with hybrid single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/computed tomography (CT) is often necessary for optimal guidance of Frostbite care. Radiographs serve as an initial survey of the affected limb and may demonstrate characteristic findings, depending on the time course and severity of injury. DSA is used to evaluate perfusion of affected soft tissues and identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Angiography-directed thrombolysis plays an essential role in tissue preservation and salvage in deep Frostbite injuries. Multiphase bone scintigraphy with technetium 99m-labeled diphosphonate provides valuable information regarding the status of tissue viability after initial treatment. The addition of SPECT/CT to multiphase bone scintigraphy enables precise anatomic localization of the level and depth of tissue necrosis before its appearance at physical examination and can help uncover subtle findings that may remain occult at scintigraphy alone. Multiphase bone scintigraphy with SPECT/CT is the modality of choice for prognostication and planning of definitive surgical care of affected limbs. Appropriate use of imaging to direct Frostbite care can help limit the effects that these injuries have on limb function and mobility. ©RSNA, 2016.
John D. Millet - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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spect ct in the evaluation of Frostbite
Journal of Burn Care & Research, 2017Co-Authors: Casey T. Kraft, John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Shailesh Agarwal, Stewart C. Wang, Kevin C. Chung, Benjamin LeviAbstract:Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario with multiple treatment algorithms and variable results. Currently, Frostbite management often follows a conservative approach with rewarming followed by wound care and delayed amputation. We review seven patients where single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) fused with conventional computed tomography was used to evaluate tissue viability for earlier directed debridement and limb salvage. The goal of this report is to evaluate SPECT/CT as an appropriate modality for the screening of necrotic bone for earlier amputation in patients with Frostbite. We retrospectively analyzed the records of seven patients (19 extremities) with Frostbite who received SPECT/CT scans to evaluate deep tissue necrosis before digit amputation. All patients who presented within the first 24 hr following their injury without contraindications were initially treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Three patients met criteria and were treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Of the seven patients analyzed, none required revision amputation beyond the level predicted on SPECT/CT scan. No patients had viable tissue distal to the most distal extent of bone perfusion. In six of the patients, the SPECT/CT scan led to more distal amputation with proximal debridement of soft tissues thus maintaining extremity length. Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario for which there are a wide number of clinical algorithms. SPECT/CT appears to be valuable in the evaluation of Frostbite to determine the need for amputation. Fusion of the nuclear images with the CT allows for more exact delineation of the level of amputation than a bone scan alone.
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SPECT/CT in the Evaluation of Frostbite.
Journal of burn care & research : official publication of the American Burn Association, 2017Co-Authors: Casey T. Kraft, John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Shailesh Agarwal, Stewart C. Wang, Kevin C. Chung, Benjamin LeviAbstract:Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario with multiple treatment algorithms and variable results. Currently, Frostbite management often follows a conservative approach with rewarming followed by wound care and delayed amputation. We review seven patients where single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) fused with conventional computed tomography was used to evaluate tissue viability for earlier directed debridement and limb salvage. The goal of this report is to evaluate SPECT/CT as an appropriate modality for the screening of necrotic bone for earlier amputation in patients with Frostbite. We retrospectively analyzed the records of seven patients (19 extremities) with Frostbite who received SPECT/CT scans to evaluate deep tissue necrosis before digit amputation. All patients who presented within the first 24 hr following their injury without contraindications were initially treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Three patients met criteria and were treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Of the seven patients analyzed, none required revision amputation beyond the level predicted on SPECT/CT scan. No patients had viable tissue distal to the most distal extent of bone perfusion. In six of the patients, the SPECT/CT scan led to more distal amputation with proximal debridement of soft tissues thus maintaining extremity length. Frostbite remains a challenging clinical scenario for which there are a wide number of clinical algorithms. SPECT/CT appears to be valuable in the evaluation of Frostbite to determine the need for amputation. Fusion of the nuclear images with the CT allows for more exact delineation of the level of amputation than a bone scan alone.
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Frostbite: Spectrum of Imaging Findings and Guidelines for Management.
Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America Inc, 2016Co-Authors: John D. Millet, Richard K.j. Brown, Benjamin Levi, Casey T. Kraft, Jon A. Jacobson, Milton D. Gross, Ka Kit WongAbstract:Frostbite is a localized cold thermal injury that results from tissue freezing. Frostbite injuries can have a substantial effect on long-term limb function and mobility if not promptly evaluated and treated. Imaging plays a critical role in initial evaluation of Frostbite injuries and in monitoring response to treatment. A multimodality approach involving radiography, digital subtraction angiography (DSA), and/or multiphase bone scintigraphy with hybrid single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/computed tomography (CT) is often necessary for optimal guidance of Frostbite care. Radiographs serve as an initial survey of the affected limb and may demonstrate characteristic findings, depending on the time course and severity of injury. DSA is used to evaluate perfusion of affected soft tissues and identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Angiography-directed thrombolysis plays an essential role in tissue preservation and salvage in deep Frostbite injuries. Multiphase bone scintigraphy with technetium 99m-labeled diphosphonate provides valuable information regarding the status of tissue viability after initial treatment. The addition of SPECT/CT to multiphase bone scintigraphy enables precise anatomic localization of the level and depth of tissue necrosis before its appearance at physical examination and can help uncover subtle findings that may remain occult at scintigraphy alone. Multiphase bone scintigraphy with SPECT/CT is the modality of choice for prognostication and planning of definitive surgical care of affected limbs. Appropriate use of imaging to direct Frostbite care can help limit the effects that these injuries have on limb function and mobility. ©RSNA, 2016.
Tiina M. Mäkinen - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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occurrence of Frostbite in the general population work related and individual factors
Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health, 2009Co-Authors: Tiina M. Mäkinen, Jari Jokelainen, Simo Nayha, Tiina Laatikainen, Pekka Jousilahti, Juhani HassiAbstract:Objective To examine the occurrence of Frostbite in the general population and the related risk factors. Methods We analyzed two national FINRISK studies (1997 and 2002) and their cold sub-studies (N=2624 and N=6951, respectively), consisting of questionnaires administered to men and women aged 25–74 years. Results A total of 697 Frostbites were reported, 425 of which had occurred during the past year and 272 over a lifetime according to the respondents. The overall proportion of annually occurring mild Frostbite was 12.9% (14.2% and 11.9% for men and women, respectively). The annual incidence of severe Frostbite was 1.1% (1.6% and 0.6% for men and women, respectively). The cumulative lifetime incidence of severe Frostbite was 10.6% (14.1% and 7.4% for men and women, respectively). Frostbite occurs more often in men than women and decreases in frequency over the age of 65. Most Frostbite incidents were reported among occupational groups such as skilled agricultural and fishery workers, craft and related trades workers, plant and machine operators, assemblers and technicians, and associate professionals. Work-related risk factors included employment in certain industries, high physical strain, and weekly cold exposure at work; however Frostbite was also likely to occur during leisure time. Individual factors that increase Frostbite risk are diabetes, white fingers in the cold, cardiac insufficiency, angina pectoris, stroke, depressive feelings, and heavy alcohol consumption. Conclusions Work-related and individual risk factors should be taken into account when developing risk assessment and management strategies for preventing Frostbite both at work and during leisure time.
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Frostbite: occurrence, risk factors and consequences.
International journal of circumpolar health, 2000Co-Authors: Juhani Hassi, Tiina M. MäkinenAbstract:Frostbites affect the civilian northern population more commonly than thought earlier. Cumulative lifetime incidences may be as high as 44-68% for all types of Frostbite. Incidences of Frostbite have mainly been reported in association with military activities but occur also during occupational duties and in recreational situations. Frostbites often affect the extremities and especially the head region. Several different predisposing factors have been reported in relation to Frostbites. These can be divided mainly into environmental, individual, behavioural and occasion-linked factors. Actual risk analyses have been conducted for a limited amount of these predisposing factors. Frostbites very often result in different functional disadvantages, some of which can lead to a temporary or permanent disability to work or carry out military duties, while others may impact negatively on occupational activities, or cause hospitalization and invalidity to varying degrees. Further, Frostbites often cause sequelae lasting from a few weeks to a lifetime.
