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Rika Ozawa - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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An Attractant of the Aphidophagous Gall Midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza From Honeydew of Aphis gossypii
Journal of Chemical Ecology, 2016Co-Authors: Hiroshi Watanabe, Keita Higashida, Syouichi Hasegawa, Eizi Yano, Junji Takabayashi, Rika OzawaAbstract:Many natural enemies of insects use Honeydew as a volatile cue to locate hosts or prey, as an oviposition stimulant, and as an arrestant for foraging. The aphidophagous gall midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) has predacious larval stages and can be used to control aphid populations, especially in greenhouses. Previous studies have shown that the Honeydew, excreted by the aphid Myzus persicae, attracts A. aphidimyza , but the crucial attractants have not been identified. Using an olfactometer, we studied behavioral responses of female A. aphidimyza to volatiles emitted from Honeydew excreted by the aphid Aphis gossypii on eggplants. The volatiles attracted female midges and induced oviposition. Moreover, using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS), we identified phenylacetaldehyde as the attractant compound in the Honeydew, although it did not induce oviposition in olfactometer experiments.
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effects of aphid Honeydew sugars on the longevity and fecundity of the aphidophagous gall midge aphidoletes aphidimyza
Biological Control, 2014Co-Authors: Hiroshi Watanabe, Shoko Nishikawa, Ryohei Sugiyama, Takuya Endou, Eizi Yano, Kaori Watanabe, Noboru Katayama, Junji Takabayashi, Rika OzawaAbstract:Abstract The predatory gall midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza, which is used for augmentative biological control of aphids in greenhouses, uses aphid Honeydew as an energy source. Currently, Rhopalosiphum padi on barley plants and Melanaphis sacchari on sorghum plants are used as the banker plant systems for A. aphidimyza to control Aphis gossypii on eggplant in Japan. We analyzed the sugar components of the Honeydew of these three species by HPLC. The major components of Honeydew were sucrose, fructose, and melezitose for A. gossypii; glucose and fructose for R. padi; and glucose, fructose, and melezitose for M. sacchari. Maltose and trehalose were minor components of the Honeydew of these species. We investigated the influence of sugars, including three artificial aphid Honeydews, six sugar components, and distilled water, on the longevity of unmated A. aphidimyza. Both females and males attained the greatest longevity on sucrose and artificial Honeydew of A. gossypii. Mean longevities of both females and males were shortest when they were provided only with water. We conducted another experiment in which a mated female was released in a cage with an eggplant seedling infested with A. gossypii and fed with sucrose or only water. Females fed with sucrose lived significantly longer and had higher lifetime fecundity than those fed only water.
Gene E Lester - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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carotene and novel apocarotenoid concentrations in orange fleshed cucumis melo melons determinations of β carotene bioaccessibility and bioavailability
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2011Co-Authors: Matthew K Fleshman, Gene E Lester, Ken M Riedl, Rachel E Kopec, Sureshbabu Narayanasamy, Robert W Curley, Steven J Schwartz, Earl H HarrisonAbstract:Muskmelons, both cantaloupe (Cucumis melo Reticulatus Group) and orange-fleshed Honeydew (C. melo Inodorus Group), a cross between orange-fleshed cantaloupe and green-fleshed Honeydew, are excellent sources of β-carotene. Although β-carotene from melon is an important dietary antioxidant and precursor of vitamin A, its bioaccessibility/bioavailability is unknown. We compared β-carotene concentrations from previously frozen orange-fleshed Honeydew and cantaloupe melons grown under the same glasshouse conditions, and from freshly harvested field-grown, orange-fleshed Honeydew melon to determine β-carotene bioaccessibility/bioavailability, concentrations of novel β-apocarotenals, and chromoplast structure of orange-fleshed Honeydew melon. β-Carotene and β-apocarotenal concentrations were determined by HPLC and/or HPLC-MS, β-carotene bioaccessibility/bioavailability was determined by in vitro digestion and Caco-2 cell uptake, and chromoplast structure was determined by electron microscopy. The average β-carotene concentrations (μg/g dry weight) for the orange-fleshed Honeydew and cantaloupe were 242.8 and 176.3 respectively. The average dry weights per gram of wet weight of orange-fleshed Honeydew and cantaloupe were 0.094 g and 0.071 g, respectively. The bioaccessibility of field-grown orange-fleshed Honeydew melons was determined to be 3.2 ± 0.3%, bioavailability in Caco-2 cells was about 11%, and chromoplast structure from orange-fleshed Honeydew melons was globular (as opposed to crystalline) in nature. We detected β-apo-8'-, β-apo-10', β-apo-12'-, and β-apo-14'-carotenals and β-apo-13-carotenone in orange-fleshed melons (at a level of 1-2% of total β-carotene). Orange-fleshed Honeydew melon fruit had higher amounts of β-carotene than cantaloupe. The bioaccessibility/bioavailability of β-carotene from orange-fleshed melons was comparable to that from carrot (Daucus carota).
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carotene and novel apocarotenoid concentrations in orange fleshed cucumis melo melons determinations of β carotene bioaccessibility and bioavailability
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2011Co-Authors: Matthew K Fleshman, Gene E Lester, Ken M Riedl, Rachel E Kopec, Sureshbabu Narayanasamy, Robert W Curley, Steven J Schwartz, Earl H HarrisonAbstract:Muskmelons, both cantaloupe (Cucumis melo Reticulatus Group) and orange-fleshed Honeydew (C. melo Inodorus Group), a cross between orange-fleshed cantaloupe and green-fleshed Honeydew, are excellent sources of β-carotene. Although β-carotene from melon is an important dietary antioxidant and precursor of vitamin A, its bioaccessibility/bioavailability is unknown. We compared β-carotene concentrations from previously frozen orange-fleshed Honeydew and cantaloupe melons grown under the same glasshouse conditions, and from freshly harvested field-grown, orange-fleshed Honeydew melon to determine β-carotene bioaccessibility/bioavailability, concentrations of novel β-apocarotenals, and chromoplast structure of orange-fleshed Honeydew melon. β-Carotene and β-apocarotenal concentrations were determined by HPLC and/or HPLC-MS, β-carotene bioaccessibility/bioavailability was determined by in vitro digestion and Caco-2 cell uptake, and chromoplast structure was determined by electron microscopy. The average β-carot...
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antioxidant sugar mineral and phytonutrient concentrations across edible fruit tissues of orange fleshed Honeydew melon cucumis melo l
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2008Co-Authors: Gene E LesterAbstract:Orange-fleshed, non-netted Honeydew (Cucumis melo L.) is a relatively new melon in the marketplace and has shown a lot of potential as an alternative to netted muskmelons (cantaloupes), which are often prone to surface contamination by enteric bacteria. Orange-fleshed Honeydew is a cross between orange-fleshed cantaloupe and non-netted, green-fleshed Honeydew. This glasshouse study investigated the nutritional profile (phytonutrient and sugar contents) in different tissues of mature orange-fleshed Honeydew melon fruit. The equatorial mesocarp of ripe fruit was segmented into hypodermal (subpeel), outer, middle, and inner (near the seed cavity) tissues and then assayed for total sugars, mineral nutrients, phytonutrients, total proteins, and enzymatic antioxidant activities. The concentrations of soluble solids, sucrose, total sugars, β-carotene, and 5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid increased in an inward direction from the subpeel mesocarp tissues toward the seed cavity. The activities of ascorbate peroxidase,...
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sensory and analytical comparison of orange fleshed Honeydew to cantaloupe and green fleshed Honeydew for fresh cut chunks
Postharvest Biology and Technology, 2006Co-Authors: Robert A Saftner, Gene E Lester, Judith A Abbott, Bryan T VinyardAbstract:Abstract Maintaining the sensory, microbial and postharvest quality of fresh-cut fruit after processing and throughout distribution and marketing is a major challenge facing the fresh-cut fruit industry. Fresh-cut chunks of orange-fleshed Honeydew (‘Honey Gold’, ‘Orange Dew’, ‘Temptation’ and three breeding lines) and green-fleshed Honeydew (‘Honey Brew’) and an orange-fleshed cantaloupe (‘Cruiser’) harvested at commercial and full-slip maturities were compared after storage for 0–11 days in air at 5 °C. Fresh-cut cantaloupe had higher respiration and ethylene production rates, aromatic volatile concentrations, and β-carotene/chroma and orange hue (except ‘Orange Dew’) than those of Honeydew whereas Honeydew chunks generally had higher soluble solids content (SSC), Kramer firmness and lower microbial counts than cantaloupe chunks. All genotypes had similar ascorbic acid levels. During storage, analytical quality characteristics of fresh-cut chunks from all genotypes were well maintained even though microbial populations increased especially on cantaloupe chunks. Consumers liked the flavor, texture, sweetness and overall eating quality of the orange-fleshed Honeydew genotypes as well as or better than those of cantaloupe and green-fleshed Honeydew. ‘Orange Dew’ scored highest in appearance and had the highest β-carotene concentration, chroma and orange hue among orange-fleshed Honeydew genotypes whereas ‘Temptation’ generally scored highest for flavor intensity and acceptability and overall eating quality; and it had the highest aromatic volatile concentrations among the orange-fleshed Honeydews. Many individual volatiles were identical in cantaloupe and Honeydews; however, Honeydew genotypes, particularly ‘Temptation’, were distinctive from cantaloupe and green-fleshed Honeydew in having relatively high levels of various nonenyl and nonadienyl acetates having Honeydew-like or uncharacterized aromas. Fresh-cut chunks from full-slip melons generally had higher analytical and sensory quality characteristics but higher microbial counts and lower shelf stability compared to those from commercially mature fruit. The results indicate that orange-fleshed Honeydews are a promising new melon type for fresh-cut processing.
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field application of chelated calcium postharvest effects on cantaloupe and Honeydew fruit quality
Horttechnology, 2004Co-Authors: Gene E Lester, Michael A GrusakAbstract:Commercially grown Honeydew fruit (Cucumis melo Inodorus group) and netted cantaloupe fruit (C. melo Reticulatus group) in lowhumidity regions of the U.S. are typically fi eld packed, eliminating the possibility for postharvest chelatedcalcium dip treatments to extend fruit shelf life. In this study, calcium treatments were applied to orange-fl esh Honeydew fruit commercially grown in 2001 and 2002 in Sacramento Valley, Calif. and orange-fl eshed netted cantaloupe fruit commercially grown in 2002 in Imperial Valley, Calif., and Rio Grande Valley, Texas. Aminoacid-chelated calcium and mannitolcomplexed calcium compounds were applied to fi eld-grown plants at the rate of 2.3 L·ha–1 (1 qt/acre) at 0, 1, 2, or 4 total applications during growth of Honeydew and cantaloupe fruit. Applications were A) at female fl owering, B) within 15 days (cantaloupe) or 20 days (Honeydew) after fl owering, C) within 30 days (cantaloupe) or 40 days (Honeydew) after
Hiroshi Watanabe - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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An Attractant of the Aphidophagous Gall Midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza From Honeydew of Aphis gossypii
Journal of Chemical Ecology, 2016Co-Authors: Hiroshi Watanabe, Keita Higashida, Syouichi Hasegawa, Eizi Yano, Junji Takabayashi, Rika OzawaAbstract:Many natural enemies of insects use Honeydew as a volatile cue to locate hosts or prey, as an oviposition stimulant, and as an arrestant for foraging. The aphidophagous gall midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) has predacious larval stages and can be used to control aphid populations, especially in greenhouses. Previous studies have shown that the Honeydew, excreted by the aphid Myzus persicae, attracts A. aphidimyza , but the crucial attractants have not been identified. Using an olfactometer, we studied behavioral responses of female A. aphidimyza to volatiles emitted from Honeydew excreted by the aphid Aphis gossypii on eggplants. The volatiles attracted female midges and induced oviposition. Moreover, using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS), we identified phenylacetaldehyde as the attractant compound in the Honeydew, although it did not induce oviposition in olfactometer experiments.
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effects of aphid Honeydew sugars on the longevity and fecundity of the aphidophagous gall midge aphidoletes aphidimyza
Biological Control, 2014Co-Authors: Hiroshi Watanabe, Shoko Nishikawa, Ryohei Sugiyama, Takuya Endou, Eizi Yano, Kaori Watanabe, Noboru Katayama, Junji Takabayashi, Rika OzawaAbstract:Abstract The predatory gall midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza, which is used for augmentative biological control of aphids in greenhouses, uses aphid Honeydew as an energy source. Currently, Rhopalosiphum padi on barley plants and Melanaphis sacchari on sorghum plants are used as the banker plant systems for A. aphidimyza to control Aphis gossypii on eggplant in Japan. We analyzed the sugar components of the Honeydew of these three species by HPLC. The major components of Honeydew were sucrose, fructose, and melezitose for A. gossypii; glucose and fructose for R. padi; and glucose, fructose, and melezitose for M. sacchari. Maltose and trehalose were minor components of the Honeydew of these species. We investigated the influence of sugars, including three artificial aphid Honeydews, six sugar components, and distilled water, on the longevity of unmated A. aphidimyza. Both females and males attained the greatest longevity on sucrose and artificial Honeydew of A. gossypii. Mean longevities of both females and males were shortest when they were provided only with water. We conducted another experiment in which a mated female was released in a cage with an eggplant seedling infested with A. gossypii and fed with sucrose or only water. Females fed with sucrose lived significantly longer and had higher lifetime fecundity than those fed only water.
Alejandro Tena - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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neonicotinoids from coated seeds toxic for Honeydew feeding biological control agents
Environmental Pollution, 2021Co-Authors: Miguel Calvoagudo, Jonathan Dregni, George E. Heimpel, Joel Gonzalezcabrera, Marcel Dicke, Alejandro TenaAbstract:Seed coating ('seed treatment') is the leading delivery method of neonicotinoid insecticides in major crops such as soybean, wheat, cotton and maize. However, this prophylactic use of neonicotinoids is widely discussed from the standpoint of environmental costs. Growing soybean plants from neonicotinoid-coated seeds in field, we demonstrate that soybean aphids (Aphis glycines) survived the treatment, and excreted Honeydew containing neonicotinoids. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that Honeydew excreted by the soybean aphid contained substantial concentrations of neonicotinoids even one month after sowing of the crop. Consuming this Honeydew reduced the longevity of two biological control agents of the soybean aphid, the predatory midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza and the parasitic wasp Aphelinus certus. These results have important environmental and economic implications because Honeydew is the main carbohydrate source for many beneficial insects in agricultural landscapes.
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quality of aphid Honeydew for a parasitoid varies as a function of both aphid species and host plant
Biological Control, 2020Co-Authors: Lucie S Monticelli, Alejandro Tena, Mathilda Idier, Edwige Amiensdesneux, Nicolas DesneuxAbstract:Abstract Honeydew i.e., the sugar-rich excretion of phloem-sap feeders, is the most available sugar source in agroecosystems which enables parasitoids to increase their fitness. For the parasitoids of Honeydew-producing insects, Honeydew is associated with host presence, suggesting that parasitoids can find carbohydrate sources and hosts at the same place. Hence, these parasitoids may have evolved to efficiently use the Honeydew produced by their main hosts as a carbohydrate source. In this context, we assessed the relationship between the adult fitness (in terms of longevity and fecundity) of the aphid parasitoid Aphelinus abdominalis (which prefer attack aphid species belonging to the Macrosiphini tribe), fed on Honeydew produced by 19 different plant-aphid combinations, and parasitoid preference (i.e., the choice of female to oviposit) and ability to produce offspring in these combinations. Honeydew quality was modulated by both the plant and aphid host species. The Honeydew produced by eight aphid species (e.g., Macrosiphum euphorbiae and Aphis craccivora) resulted in high parasitoid longevity (same longevity as the honey-fed positive control) and an increase in egg load between 24 and 48 h, compared to the negative control (fed only water). In contrast, nine aphid species (e.g., Brevicoryne brassicae and Aphis nerii) excreted low-quality Honeydew that did not increase parasitoid longevity or egg load (similar to the negative control water-fed parasitoids). There was no relationship between A. abdominalis adult fitness when fed various Honeydews and its preference as well as its ability to produce offspring in the hosts producing these Honeydews. Several hypotheses that may explain this lack of relationship are discussed.
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neonicotinoids in excretion product of phloem feeding insects kill beneficial insects
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2019Co-Authors: Miguel Calvoagudo, Alberto Urbaneja, Joel Gonzalezcabrera, Yolanda Pico, Pau Calatayudvernich, Marcel Dicke, Alejandro TenaAbstract:Pest control in agriculture is mainly based on the application of insecticides, which may impact nontarget beneficial organisms leading to undesirable ecological effects. Neonicotinoids are among the most widely used insecticides. However, they have important negative side effects, especially for pollinators and other beneficial insects feeding on nectar. Here, we identify a more accessible exposure route: Neonicotinoids reach and kill beneficial insects that feed on the most abundant carbohydrate source for insects in agroecosystems, Honeydew. Honeydew is the excretion product of phloem-feeding hemipteran insects such as aphids, mealybugs, whiteflies, and psyllids. We allowed parasitic wasps and pollinating hoverflies to feed on Honeydew from hemipterans feeding on trees treated with thiamethoxam or imidacloprid, the most commonly used neonicotinoids. LC-MS/MS analyses demonstrated that both neonicotinoids were present in Honeydew. Honeydew with thiamethoxam was highly toxic to both species of beneficial insects, and Honeydew with imidacloprid was moderately toxic to hoverflies. Collectively, our data provide strong evidence for Honeydew as a route of insecticide exposure that may cause acute or chronic deleterious effects on nontarget organisms. This route should be considered in future environmental risk assessments of neonicotinoid applications.
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The influence of aphid-produced Honeydew on parasitoid fitness and nutritional state: A comparative study
Basic and Applied Ecology, 2018Co-Authors: Alejandro Tena, Matthias Senft, Nicolas Desneux, Jonathan Dregni, George E. HeimpelAbstract:Honeydew is a sugar-rich resource excreted by many hemipteran species and is a key food source for other insect species such as ants and parasitoid wasps. Here, we evaluated the nutritional value of 14 Honeydews excreted by 13 aphid species for the generalist aphid parasitoid Lysiphlebus testaceipes to test a series of hypotheses concerning variation in the nutritional value of Honeydew. There was a positive correlation between the body sugar content of Honeydew-fed parasitoids and their longevity. This information is valuable for biological control researchers because it demonstrates that the nutritional state of Honeydew-fed parasitoids in the wild can indicate their fitness, independently of the Honeydew source they have fed on. Although the carbohydrate content and longevity of L. testaceipes differed greatly among the different Honeydews, we did not find a significant effect of aphid or host plant phylogeny on these traits. This result suggests that Honeydew is evolutionarily labile and may be particularly subject to ecological selection pressures. This becomes apparent when considering host aphid suitability: Schizaphis graminum, one of the most suitable and commonly used hosts of L. testaceipes, produced Honeydew of the poorest quality for the parasitoid whereas Uroleucon sonchi, one of the few aphids tested that cannot be parasitized by L. testaceipes, excreted the Honeydew with the highest nutritional value. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that hemipterans are subject to selection pressure to minimize Honeydew quality for the parasitoids that attack them.
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parasitoid nutritional ecology in a community context the importance of Honeydew and implications for biological control
Current opinion in insect science, 2016Co-Authors: Alejandro Tena, Felix L Wackers, Alberto Urbaneja, George E. Heimpel, Apostolos PekasAbstract:One focus of conservation biological control studies has been to improve the nutritional state and fitness of parasitoids by adding nectar and artificial sugars to agroecosystems. This approach has largely overlooked the presence of Honeydew, which is likely the primary carbohydrate source available to parasitoids in many agroecosystems. Over the last decade, it has been demonstrated that parasitoids often utilize this sugar source and there is evidence that Honeydew can indirectly impact the population dynamics of herbivores through its nutritional value for parasitoids. The consumption of Honeydew by parasitoids can shape direct and indirect interactions with other arthropods. The strength of these effects will depend on: first, parasitoid biology, second, the presence of other sugar sources (mainly nectar), third, the quality and quantity of the Honeydew, and fourth, the presence and competitive strength of other Honeydew consumers such as ants. The combination of these four factors is expected to result in distinct scenarios that should be analyzed for each agroecosystem. This analysis can reveal opportunities to increase the biocontrol services provided by parasitoids. Moreover, Honeydew can be a resource-rich habitat for insect pathogens; or contain plant secondary chemicals sequestered by hemipterans or systemic insecticides toxic for the parasitoid. Their presence and effect on parasitoid fitness will need to be addressed in future research.
Earl H Harrison - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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carotene and novel apocarotenoid concentrations in orange fleshed cucumis melo melons determinations of β carotene bioaccessibility and bioavailability
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2011Co-Authors: Matthew K Fleshman, Gene E Lester, Ken M Riedl, Rachel E Kopec, Sureshbabu Narayanasamy, Robert W Curley, Steven J Schwartz, Earl H HarrisonAbstract:Muskmelons, both cantaloupe (Cucumis melo Reticulatus Group) and orange-fleshed Honeydew (C. melo Inodorus Group), a cross between orange-fleshed cantaloupe and green-fleshed Honeydew, are excellent sources of β-carotene. Although β-carotene from melon is an important dietary antioxidant and precursor of vitamin A, its bioaccessibility/bioavailability is unknown. We compared β-carotene concentrations from previously frozen orange-fleshed Honeydew and cantaloupe melons grown under the same glasshouse conditions, and from freshly harvested field-grown, orange-fleshed Honeydew melon to determine β-carotene bioaccessibility/bioavailability, concentrations of novel β-apocarotenals, and chromoplast structure of orange-fleshed Honeydew melon. β-Carotene and β-apocarotenal concentrations were determined by HPLC and/or HPLC-MS, β-carotene bioaccessibility/bioavailability was determined by in vitro digestion and Caco-2 cell uptake, and chromoplast structure was determined by electron microscopy. The average β-carotene concentrations (μg/g dry weight) for the orange-fleshed Honeydew and cantaloupe were 242.8 and 176.3 respectively. The average dry weights per gram of wet weight of orange-fleshed Honeydew and cantaloupe were 0.094 g and 0.071 g, respectively. The bioaccessibility of field-grown orange-fleshed Honeydew melons was determined to be 3.2 ± 0.3%, bioavailability in Caco-2 cells was about 11%, and chromoplast structure from orange-fleshed Honeydew melons was globular (as opposed to crystalline) in nature. We detected β-apo-8'-, β-apo-10', β-apo-12'-, and β-apo-14'-carotenals and β-apo-13-carotenone in orange-fleshed melons (at a level of 1-2% of total β-carotene). Orange-fleshed Honeydew melon fruit had higher amounts of β-carotene than cantaloupe. The bioaccessibility/bioavailability of β-carotene from orange-fleshed melons was comparable to that from carrot (Daucus carota).
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carotene and novel apocarotenoid concentrations in orange fleshed cucumis melo melons determinations of β carotene bioaccessibility and bioavailability
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2011Co-Authors: Matthew K Fleshman, Gene E Lester, Ken M Riedl, Rachel E Kopec, Sureshbabu Narayanasamy, Robert W Curley, Steven J Schwartz, Earl H HarrisonAbstract:Muskmelons, both cantaloupe (Cucumis melo Reticulatus Group) and orange-fleshed Honeydew (C. melo Inodorus Group), a cross between orange-fleshed cantaloupe and green-fleshed Honeydew, are excellent sources of β-carotene. Although β-carotene from melon is an important dietary antioxidant and precursor of vitamin A, its bioaccessibility/bioavailability is unknown. We compared β-carotene concentrations from previously frozen orange-fleshed Honeydew and cantaloupe melons grown under the same glasshouse conditions, and from freshly harvested field-grown, orange-fleshed Honeydew melon to determine β-carotene bioaccessibility/bioavailability, concentrations of novel β-apocarotenals, and chromoplast structure of orange-fleshed Honeydew melon. β-Carotene and β-apocarotenal concentrations were determined by HPLC and/or HPLC-MS, β-carotene bioaccessibility/bioavailability was determined by in vitro digestion and Caco-2 cell uptake, and chromoplast structure was determined by electron microscopy. The average β-carot...
