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Nana Khakhutaishvili - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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crucible technologies in the late bronze early iron age south caucasus copper processing tin bronze Production and the possibility of local tin ores
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2015Co-Authors: Nathaniel L Erbsatullo, Brian J J Gilmour, Nana KhakhutaishviliAbstract:The South Caucasus was a major center of Metal Production in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. Nowhere is this more clear than in the hills and mountains in the southeastern Black Sea region (ancient Colchis), where exceptionally large numbers of Metal Production sites have been found. Chemical and microscopic analysis of slagged technical ceramics at these sites illuminates several aspects of both raw copper and tin bronze alloy Production. Copper ores were smelted in a complex multi-stage process designed to extract Metal from sulfide ores. Technical ceramics served as containers for a range of different reactions, from the first phase of smelting, in which the copper sulfides were likely consolidated into a matte, though later stages of matte processing and Metal copper Production in smaller crucibles. In addition, a single crucible fragment, recovered from a late 2nd millennium BC slag heap, demonstrates that tin bronze was created by the direct addition of cassiterite tin ore, probably of alluvial origin, to Metallic copper. The crucible's context, the use of cassiterite ore rather than tin Metal, and a review of local geology suggests that the tin used in this crucible came from nearby, with the most likely source being the Vakijvari and Bzhuzhi gorges roughly 10–15 km away. While a single fragment does not speak to the regularity of this practice, at the very least it raises the possibility that the Colchian bronze industry was based on local rather than imported tin.
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late bronze and early iron age copper smelting technologies in the south caucasus the view from ancient colchis c 1500 600 bc
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2014Co-Authors: Nathaniel L Erbsatullo, Brian J J Gilmour, Nana KhakhutaishviliAbstract:Many of the arguments for how and why people began to use iron in Southwest Asia rely on assumptions about the technology and relative organization of copper and iron smelting. However, research on the technological transformations of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age suffers from a lack of investigation of primary Metal Production contexts, especially in regions outside the Levant. The current research examines Metal Production debris from a large number of smelting sites in western Georgia, and addresses questions of technology and resource utilization through detailed examination of few select sites. Through the chemical and mineralogical analysis of slag samples, we demonstrate the existence of an extensive copper-Production industry and reconstruct several key aspects of the smelting technology during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Combining a statistical analysis of slag mineralogy with other lines of evidence, we argue that copper was extracted from sulfide ores through a process of roasting and smelting in deep pit furnaces. The data also suggest that Metalworkers at different sites exploited different ore sources within the same ore body. These results form a fundamental basis for further examination of spatial and chronological patterns of technological variation, with implications for models of Near Eastern copper Production in this crucial period. Intriguing evidence of bloomery iron smelting, though currently undated, reinforces the region's potential to provide data on a key technological transformation.
Nathaniel L Erbsatullo - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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iron and copper Production at iron age ashkelon implications for the organization of levantine Metal Production
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2017Co-Authors: Nathaniel L Erbsatullo, Joshua T WaltonAbstract:Abstract Understanding the spatial distribution of different craft Production activities is an essential part of any investigation into the organization of Production. In the Iron Age southern Levant, discussions of the rise of iron often revolve around the relative organization of bronze and iron Production. For these reasons, identifying where different stages of Metal Production occurred is essential for testing models of technological change during this period. This study reviews the challenges of identifying different stages of Metal Production from often-ephemeral residues found at settlement sites, with particular emphasis on the question of urban iron smelting in the early Iron Age southern Levant. These considerations are applied to the analysis of a small but significant assemblage of Metal Production remains from Iron IIB Ashkelon (c. 8th century BCE), using macroscopic observations, chemical analysis, and microscopy. The results of these analyses support the conclusion that multiple iron Production processes—likely including both smelting and smithing—took place in or near a domestic quarter at Ashkelon. With one or two exceptions, copper Production residues are restricted to secondary refining and casting residues. Copper smelting was carried out elsewhere. If this pattern holds as more urban Production debris is recognized and analyzed, such differences in the relative organization of iron and copper-alloy Production may provide clues as to why iron Production expanded dramatically in the early 1st millennium BCE.
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crucible technologies in the late bronze early iron age south caucasus copper processing tin bronze Production and the possibility of local tin ores
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2015Co-Authors: Nathaniel L Erbsatullo, Brian J J Gilmour, Nana KhakhutaishviliAbstract:The South Caucasus was a major center of Metal Production in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. Nowhere is this more clear than in the hills and mountains in the southeastern Black Sea region (ancient Colchis), where exceptionally large numbers of Metal Production sites have been found. Chemical and microscopic analysis of slagged technical ceramics at these sites illuminates several aspects of both raw copper and tin bronze alloy Production. Copper ores were smelted in a complex multi-stage process designed to extract Metal from sulfide ores. Technical ceramics served as containers for a range of different reactions, from the first phase of smelting, in which the copper sulfides were likely consolidated into a matte, though later stages of matte processing and Metal copper Production in smaller crucibles. In addition, a single crucible fragment, recovered from a late 2nd millennium BC slag heap, demonstrates that tin bronze was created by the direct addition of cassiterite tin ore, probably of alluvial origin, to Metallic copper. The crucible's context, the use of cassiterite ore rather than tin Metal, and a review of local geology suggests that the tin used in this crucible came from nearby, with the most likely source being the Vakijvari and Bzhuzhi gorges roughly 10–15 km away. While a single fragment does not speak to the regularity of this practice, at the very least it raises the possibility that the Colchian bronze industry was based on local rather than imported tin.
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late bronze and early iron age copper smelting technologies in the south caucasus the view from ancient colchis c 1500 600 bc
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2014Co-Authors: Nathaniel L Erbsatullo, Brian J J Gilmour, Nana KhakhutaishviliAbstract:Many of the arguments for how and why people began to use iron in Southwest Asia rely on assumptions about the technology and relative organization of copper and iron smelting. However, research on the technological transformations of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age suffers from a lack of investigation of primary Metal Production contexts, especially in regions outside the Levant. The current research examines Metal Production debris from a large number of smelting sites in western Georgia, and addresses questions of technology and resource utilization through detailed examination of few select sites. Through the chemical and mineralogical analysis of slag samples, we demonstrate the existence of an extensive copper-Production industry and reconstruct several key aspects of the smelting technology during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Combining a statistical analysis of slag mineralogy with other lines of evidence, we argue that copper was extracted from sulfide ores through a process of roasting and smelting in deep pit furnaces. The data also suggest that Metalworkers at different sites exploited different ore sources within the same ore body. These results form a fundamental basis for further examination of spatial and chronological patterns of technological variation, with implications for models of Near Eastern copper Production in this crucial period. Intriguing evidence of bloomery iron smelting, though currently undated, reinforces the region's potential to provide data on a key technological transformation.
Vasilis Fthenakis - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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life cycle inventory analysis in the Production of Metals used in photovoltaics
Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009Co-Authors: Vasilis Fthenakis, Wenming Wang, Hyung-chul KimAbstract:Material flows and emissions in all the stages of Production of zinc, copper, aluminum, cadmium, indium, germanium, gallium, selenium, tellurium, and molybdenum were investigated. These Metals are used selectively in the manufacture of solar cells, and emission and energy factors in their Production are used in the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of photovoltaics. Significant changes have occurred in the Production and associated emissions for these Metals over the last 10 years, which are not described in the LCA databases. Furthermore, emission and energy factors for several of the by-products of the base Metal Production were lacking. This report aims in updating the life-cycle inventories associated with the Production of the base Metals (Zn, Cu, Al, Mo) and in defining the emission and energy allocations for the minor Metals (Cd, In, Ge, Se, Te and Ga) used in photovoltaics.
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Life cycle inventory analysis of the Production of Metals used in photovoltaics
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009Co-Authors: Vasilis Fthenakis, Wenming Wang, Hyung-chul KimAbstract:Material flows and emissions in all the stages of Production of zinc, copper, aluminum, cadmium, indium, germanium, gallium, selenium, tellurium, and molybdenum were investigated. These Metals are used selectively in the manufacture of solar cells, and emission and energy factors in their Production are used in the life cycle analysis (LCA) of photovoltaics. Significant changes have occurred in the Production and associated emissions for these Metals over the last 10 years, which are not described in the LCA databases. Furthermore, emission and energy factors for several of the by-products of the base Metal Production were lacking. This review article aims in updating the life cycle inventories associated with the Production of the base Metals (Zn, Cu), and defining the Production paths and emission and energy allocations for the minor Metals (Cd, Ge, In, Mo, Se, and Te) used in photovoltaics.
Hyung-chul Kim - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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life cycle inventory analysis in the Production of Metals used in photovoltaics
Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009Co-Authors: Vasilis Fthenakis, Wenming Wang, Hyung-chul KimAbstract:Material flows and emissions in all the stages of Production of zinc, copper, aluminum, cadmium, indium, germanium, gallium, selenium, tellurium, and molybdenum were investigated. These Metals are used selectively in the manufacture of solar cells, and emission and energy factors in their Production are used in the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of photovoltaics. Significant changes have occurred in the Production and associated emissions for these Metals over the last 10 years, which are not described in the LCA databases. Furthermore, emission and energy factors for several of the by-products of the base Metal Production were lacking. This report aims in updating the life-cycle inventories associated with the Production of the base Metals (Zn, Cu, Al, Mo) and in defining the emission and energy allocations for the minor Metals (Cd, In, Ge, Se, Te and Ga) used in photovoltaics.
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Life cycle inventory analysis of the Production of Metals used in photovoltaics
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009Co-Authors: Vasilis Fthenakis, Wenming Wang, Hyung-chul KimAbstract:Material flows and emissions in all the stages of Production of zinc, copper, aluminum, cadmium, indium, germanium, gallium, selenium, tellurium, and molybdenum were investigated. These Metals are used selectively in the manufacture of solar cells, and emission and energy factors in their Production are used in the life cycle analysis (LCA) of photovoltaics. Significant changes have occurred in the Production and associated emissions for these Metals over the last 10 years, which are not described in the LCA databases. Furthermore, emission and energy factors for several of the by-products of the base Metal Production were lacking. This review article aims in updating the life cycle inventories associated with the Production of the base Metals (Zn, Cu), and defining the Production paths and emission and energy allocations for the minor Metals (Cd, Ge, In, Mo, Se, and Te) used in photovoltaics.
Brian J J Gilmour - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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crucible technologies in the late bronze early iron age south caucasus copper processing tin bronze Production and the possibility of local tin ores
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2015Co-Authors: Nathaniel L Erbsatullo, Brian J J Gilmour, Nana KhakhutaishviliAbstract:The South Caucasus was a major center of Metal Production in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. Nowhere is this more clear than in the hills and mountains in the southeastern Black Sea region (ancient Colchis), where exceptionally large numbers of Metal Production sites have been found. Chemical and microscopic analysis of slagged technical ceramics at these sites illuminates several aspects of both raw copper and tin bronze alloy Production. Copper ores were smelted in a complex multi-stage process designed to extract Metal from sulfide ores. Technical ceramics served as containers for a range of different reactions, from the first phase of smelting, in which the copper sulfides were likely consolidated into a matte, though later stages of matte processing and Metal copper Production in smaller crucibles. In addition, a single crucible fragment, recovered from a late 2nd millennium BC slag heap, demonstrates that tin bronze was created by the direct addition of cassiterite tin ore, probably of alluvial origin, to Metallic copper. The crucible's context, the use of cassiterite ore rather than tin Metal, and a review of local geology suggests that the tin used in this crucible came from nearby, with the most likely source being the Vakijvari and Bzhuzhi gorges roughly 10–15 km away. While a single fragment does not speak to the regularity of this practice, at the very least it raises the possibility that the Colchian bronze industry was based on local rather than imported tin.
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late bronze and early iron age copper smelting technologies in the south caucasus the view from ancient colchis c 1500 600 bc
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2014Co-Authors: Nathaniel L Erbsatullo, Brian J J Gilmour, Nana KhakhutaishviliAbstract:Many of the arguments for how and why people began to use iron in Southwest Asia rely on assumptions about the technology and relative organization of copper and iron smelting. However, research on the technological transformations of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age suffers from a lack of investigation of primary Metal Production contexts, especially in regions outside the Levant. The current research examines Metal Production debris from a large number of smelting sites in western Georgia, and addresses questions of technology and resource utilization through detailed examination of few select sites. Through the chemical and mineralogical analysis of slag samples, we demonstrate the existence of an extensive copper-Production industry and reconstruct several key aspects of the smelting technology during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Combining a statistical analysis of slag mineralogy with other lines of evidence, we argue that copper was extracted from sulfide ores through a process of roasting and smelting in deep pit furnaces. The data also suggest that Metalworkers at different sites exploited different ore sources within the same ore body. These results form a fundamental basis for further examination of spatial and chronological patterns of technological variation, with implications for models of Near Eastern copper Production in this crucial period. Intriguing evidence of bloomery iron smelting, though currently undated, reinforces the region's potential to provide data on a key technological transformation.