The Experts below are selected from a list of 120 Experts worldwide ranked by ideXlab platform
Cécile Bessou - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Pilot application of PalmGHG, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil greenhouse gas calculator for Oil Palm Products
Journal of Cleaner Production, 2014Co-Authors: Cécile Bessou, Laurence D. C. Chase, Ian E Henson, Amir F.n. Abdul-manan, Fahmuddin Agus, Mukesh Sharma, Llorenç Milà I Canals, Melissa ChinAbstract:The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable Palm Oil through a voluntary certification scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) were active in RSPO from 2009 to 2011, with the aim of identifying ways of achieving meaningful and verifiable reductions of GHG emissions. One of the outputs of the second group is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the life cycle assessment ap-proach to quantify major sources of emissions and sequestration for individual Palm Oil mills and their supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 with nine RSPO member companies that gave an average of 1.67 t CO2e/t crude Palm Oil (CPO), with a range of -0.02 to +8.32t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and the area of peat sOil used were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG continue to be made in order to make the tool more flexible and comprehensive, to refine default values, and to render it more user-friendly.
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PalmGHG, the RSPO greenhouse gas calculator for Oil Palm Products
2012Co-Authors: Cécile Bessou, Laurence D. C. Chase, Ian E Henson, Amir F.n. Abdul-manan, Llorenç Milà-i-canals, Fahmuddin Agus, Mukesh SharmaAbstract:The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable Palm Oil through a voluntary certification scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) have been active in RSPO between 2009-2011, with the aim of identifying ways leading to meaningful and verifiable reduction of GHG emissions. One of the outputs is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the LCA approach to quantify the major sources of emission and sequestration for a mill and its supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 on nine RSPO companies. Results gave an average of 1.03 t CO2e/t crude Palm Oil, with a wide range of -0.07 to +2.46 t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and area under peat were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG are being made, notably to amend default values and upgrade it to a user-friendly software. (Resume d'auteur)
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RSPO in a kernel shell
2012Co-Authors: Cécile Bessou, Llorenç Milà-i-canalsAbstract:The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association that was created in 2003 and legally registered in 2004. It promotes the production and consumption of sustainable Palm Oil through a voluntary certification scheme. This certification scheme was developed by the stakeholders of the seven sectors involved in the Palm Oil commodity chain: growers, processors/traders, social NGOs, environmental NGOs, manufacturers, retailers, and banks. It relies, for the growers, on the compliance with the principles and criteria (P&Cs) of sustainability that were defined by consensus in 2007. These 39 P&Cs cover 8 dimensions: 1) Commitment to transparency [2 criteria], 2) Compliance with applicable laws and regulations [3 criteria], 3) Commitment to long-term economic and financial viability [1 criterion], 4) Use of appropriate best practices by growers and millers [8 criteria], 5) Environmental responsibility and conservation of natural resources and biodiversity [6 criteria], 6) Responsible consideration for employees and for individuals and communities affected by growers and mills [11 criteria], 7) Responsible development of new plantings [7 criteria], and 8) Commitment to continuous improvement [1 criterion]. The certified unit is the mill with its supply base. For out-growers supplying the certified mill, such as smallholders, a three-year delay is given to account for their difficulties in implementing the P&Cs. Other stakeholders involved in the supply chain must also fulfill specific requirements to allow for the complete chain certification. According to the supply chain certification systems, the final product may be labeled with the "Certified Sustainable Palm Oil" (CSPO) logo in the case of "Identity Preserved" or "Segregation". Alternatively, CSPO may be used to show support to the production of RSPO-certified Palm Oil without physical traceability of the produced amounts in the cases of "Mass Balance" and "Book and Claim" schemes. Nowadays, Palm Oil is the most used vegetable Oil worldwide, representing more than 30% of total produced vegetable Oils (Omont, 2010). With its 570 ordinary members, including 98 growers and 207 processors and traders, RSPO assembles 40% of worldwide Palm Oil producers and 20% of buyers. Despite a rapid increase in its production in the last 3 years, RSPO-certified Palm Oil (CSPO + CSPKO) represents today between 10 and 15% of global production (USDA, 2011 and RSPO, 2011) with only 50% uptake by the market. RSPO is directed by an executive board (EB) of 16 seats convening the diverse stakeholders. The EB plays a major role in organizing the annual general assembly, the highest RSPO authority, approving certification bodies and supervising member groups such as the taskforce on national interpretation of the P&Cs and the taskforce on revising the P&Cs, which must be done every 5 years. The executive board has also commissioned a working group on greenhouse gas (GHG WG) with the aim of identifying ways leading to meaningful and verifiable reduction of GHG emissions. Two successive science-based GHG WG have been active between 2009-2011, focusing on the review and development of methodological approaches and data that are accurate and relevant for diverse Palm Oil production systems. Such robust data and approaches underpin the outcomes of the GHG WG. Activities during the last two years were i) to organise a common harmonized framework for GHG accounting, ii) to develop a plan for moving forward via voluntary action, iii) to coordinate work with the group on peat land, and iv) to identify opportunities to reduce GHG from land use change. At the end of its mandate (November 2011), the GHG WG provided the EB with recommendations regarding the consideration of greenhouse gases within P&Cs to be considered by the taskforce revising the P&Cs. These recommendations include the use of a tool such as PalmGHG (or equivalent) to calculate the greenhouse gas balances of Oil Palm Products. PalmGHG was developed by the workstream 1 of the GHG WG. It is an excel spreadsheet using the life cycle assessment approach and based on a previous tool by Chase & Henson (2010). The greenhouse gas balances are calculated for one mill and its supply base, as for the certification scheme. It allows for the calculation of greenhouse gas balances for diverse Products such as crude Palm Oil or Palm biodiesel (according to 2009/28/EC), and for scenario testing. It must be still peer-reviewed and upgraded to a user-friendly software. Other recommendations of the GHG WG refer e.g. to the characteristics that should be met by new plantations in order to ensure low GHG emissions.
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Introduction to PalmGHG - The RSPO greenhouse gas calculator for Oil Palm Products
2011Co-Authors: Laurence D. C. Chase, Cécile BessouAbstract:PalmGHG has been developed by the RSPO Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Working Group 2. It is a spreadsheet that quantifies the major sources of emissions and sequestration for a Palm Oil mill and its supply base, including estates and outgrowers, and is compatible with standard international GHG accounting methodologies. The calculator is flexible, allowing for different crop rotation lengths and alternatives to the default values. It calculates the total net emissions per ha, allocates these to co-Products, and expresses them as t CO2e/t Palm product, e.g. crude Palm Oil (CPO). The calculations can be done on an annual basis: this allows for identification of principal emission sources for management purposes; regular reporting, internally to the company and externally to the supply chain; and monitoring. A pilot study has been carried out in 2011 on nine RSPO companies, to determine its ease of use, and suitability of PalmGHG as a management tool. Results from eight mills gave an average of 1.03t CO2e/t CPO, with a wide range of -0.07 to +2.46t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and the percentage of the area under peat were the main causes of the variation. PalmGHG readily allows manipulation of input data to test management interventions. Results of scenario testing are given for a set of dummy data. The results show that high emissions result from clearing logged forest or peat, and conversely that very low (negative) emissions result from clearing low biomass land such as grassland. Net emissions below 0.5t CO2e/t CPO can be obtained from a mature industry that is replanting Palms and capturing methane and generating electricity from the biogas. Further modifications to PalmGHG are being made, to amend default values and include calculations for biodiesel and other co-Products. The updated calculator will then be tested through peer review, and completed by simplifying procedures for data entry, and providing documentation. (Texte integral)
Laurence D. C. Chase - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Pilot application of PalmGHG, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil greenhouse gas calculator for Oil Palm Products
Journal of Cleaner Production, 2014Co-Authors: Cécile Bessou, Laurence D. C. Chase, Ian E Henson, Amir F.n. Abdul-manan, Fahmuddin Agus, Mukesh Sharma, Llorenç Milà I Canals, Melissa ChinAbstract:The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable Palm Oil through a voluntary certification scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) were active in RSPO from 2009 to 2011, with the aim of identifying ways of achieving meaningful and verifiable reductions of GHG emissions. One of the outputs of the second group is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the life cycle assessment ap-proach to quantify major sources of emissions and sequestration for individual Palm Oil mills and their supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 with nine RSPO member companies that gave an average of 1.67 t CO2e/t crude Palm Oil (CPO), with a range of -0.02 to +8.32t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and the area of peat sOil used were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG continue to be made in order to make the tool more flexible and comprehensive, to refine default values, and to render it more user-friendly.
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PalmGHG, the RSPO greenhouse gas calculator for Oil Palm Products
2012Co-Authors: Cécile Bessou, Laurence D. C. Chase, Ian E Henson, Amir F.n. Abdul-manan, Llorenç Milà-i-canals, Fahmuddin Agus, Mukesh SharmaAbstract:The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable Palm Oil through a voluntary certification scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) have been active in RSPO between 2009-2011, with the aim of identifying ways leading to meaningful and verifiable reduction of GHG emissions. One of the outputs is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the LCA approach to quantify the major sources of emission and sequestration for a mill and its supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 on nine RSPO companies. Results gave an average of 1.03 t CO2e/t crude Palm Oil, with a wide range of -0.07 to +2.46 t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and area under peat were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG are being made, notably to amend default values and upgrade it to a user-friendly software. (Resume d'auteur)
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Introduction to PalmGHG - The RSPO greenhouse gas calculator for Oil Palm Products
2011Co-Authors: Laurence D. C. Chase, Cécile BessouAbstract:PalmGHG has been developed by the RSPO Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Working Group 2. It is a spreadsheet that quantifies the major sources of emissions and sequestration for a Palm Oil mill and its supply base, including estates and outgrowers, and is compatible with standard international GHG accounting methodologies. The calculator is flexible, allowing for different crop rotation lengths and alternatives to the default values. It calculates the total net emissions per ha, allocates these to co-Products, and expresses them as t CO2e/t Palm product, e.g. crude Palm Oil (CPO). The calculations can be done on an annual basis: this allows for identification of principal emission sources for management purposes; regular reporting, internally to the company and externally to the supply chain; and monitoring. A pilot study has been carried out in 2011 on nine RSPO companies, to determine its ease of use, and suitability of PalmGHG as a management tool. Results from eight mills gave an average of 1.03t CO2e/t CPO, with a wide range of -0.07 to +2.46t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and the percentage of the area under peat were the main causes of the variation. PalmGHG readily allows manipulation of input data to test management interventions. Results of scenario testing are given for a set of dummy data. The results show that high emissions result from clearing logged forest or peat, and conversely that very low (negative) emissions result from clearing low biomass land such as grassland. Net emissions below 0.5t CO2e/t CPO can be obtained from a mature industry that is replanting Palms and capturing methane and generating electricity from the biogas. Further modifications to PalmGHG are being made, to amend default values and include calculations for biodiesel and other co-Products. The updated calculator will then be tested through peer review, and completed by simplifying procedures for data entry, and providing documentation. (Texte integral)
Vijaya Subramaniam - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Malaysia Palm Oil's life cycle assessment incorporating methane capture by 2020.
2014Co-Authors: Vijaya Subramaniam, Halimah Muhamad, May Chooyuen, Zulkifli HashimAbstract:In the past, the norm to determine the competitiveness of Palm Oil is by conducting a direct economic comparison with other vegetable Oils. However, with increasing attention on sustainable development, the environmental and social relevance of Palm Oil production are now defining issues in trade. In 2012, the Environmental Protection agency (EPA) of USA, under the Renewable Fuels Standard 2 (RFS2), published the Notice of Data Availability (NODA) ruling that Oil Palm biofuel does not meet the GHG threshold requirements when compared to fossil fuel. In their calculations they assumedthat only 10% of the Palm Oil mills in Malaysia and Indonesia will have biogas capture facilities by 2020. A comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) study of Malaysian Oil Palm Products from mineral sOils was carried out by MPOB. One of the outcomes of this study was the identification of methane emissions from the POME treatment to be a significant contributor to the GHG emissions along the supply chain. Following this, the National Key Economic Areas (NKEA), included biogas trapping as one of the eight Entry Point Projects of the Palm Oil sector; that targets that all Palm Oil mills will capture their biogas by the year 2020. The objective of this study was to compare the national GHG emissions if Palm Oil mills do not capture their biogas and savings that the Oil Palm industry will contribute if all the Palm Oil mills capture biogas. This study has a cradle to gate system boundary which starts at the Oil Palm nurseries followed by the plantations up to the Palm Oil mills. The land use scenario used in this study at the plantation was the continued land usechange from Oil Palm to Oil Palm. Allocation is carried out at the Palm Oil mill with the by Products. Three scenarios were considered: annual GHG emissions in Malaysia from the biogas and the production of CPO ( with allocation) with no biogas capture facilities; annual GHG emissions and savings in Malaysia from the biogas and the production of CPO ( with allocation) with 10% of the Palm Oil mills having biogas capture facilities and annual GHG emissions and savings in Malaysia from the biogas and the production of CPO ( with allocation) with 100% of the Palm Oil mills having biogas capture facilities. Using the 2013 production figures for Malaysia, the GHG emissions from the biogas alone was 18.36 million t CO2eq/year while the total GHG emissions for CPO was 18.66 million t CO2eq/year. With 10% of the Palm Oil mills capturing the biogas; the GHG emissions from biogas reduced to 16.74 million t CO2eq/year with total savings of 0.99 million t CO2eq/year while the total GHG emissions for CPO was 17.66 million t CO2eq/year. With 100% of the mills having biogas capture the GHG emissions reduces drastically to 2.07 million t CO2eq/year with total savings of 16.30 million t CO2eq/year while the total GHG emissions for CPO was 8.67 million t CO2eq/year.
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Greenhouse gas emissions for the production of crude Palm kernel Oil - a gate-to-gate case study.
Journal of Oil Palm Research, 2012Co-Authors: Vijaya Subramaniam, May ChooyuenAbstract:Currently, carbon footprint, also known as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is such a catchphrase in the world that it has become a must for responsible producers to quantify the carbon footprint of their Products. The Malaysian Oil Palm industry is an export-orientated industry which relies heavily on the world market. Export earnings of Oil Palm Products in 2010 alone reached RM 59.77 billion, while Palm kernel Oil exports increased to 1.16 million tonnes. However, the Oil Palm industry is under constant attack for its performance from the perspective of the environment, especially with regard to its GHG emissions. Being an export-orientated industry, this issue has to be tackled head-on to quantify the GHG emissions of the Oil Palm industry. The objectives of this study were to quantify the GHG emissions from the production of 1 t of crude Palm kernel Oil (CPKO) at the kernel-crushing plant, and to compare the GHG emissions of 1 t CPKO with and without biogas capture at the Palm Oil mill for a kernel-crushing plant located near the ports compared to a kernelcrushing plant located near the Palm Oil mill. The scope of this study is limited to the Palm Oil mill and the kernel-crushing plant. It starts at the Palm Oil mill where the fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are received, to the production of Palm kernel at the mill, to the transportation of the Palm kernel to the kernel-crushing plant, right up till the production of CPKO at the kernel-crushing plant. GHG emission was calculated using the global warming potential and emissions factors. Within the system boundary, the main contributor to GHG emission comes from the biogas at the Palm Oil mill, followed by the electricity from the grid for processing the Palm kernel into CPKO. Capturing the biogas at the Palm Oil mill where the Palm kernel is produced and using the biogas as a renewable energy source, reduces the main GHG emissions in this study. By integrating the kernel-crushing plant with the Palm Oil mill, GHG emissions from both the electricity to process the Palm kernel into CPKO and transportation of the Palm kernel to the kernel-crushing plant are reduced significantly. The best scenario will be to integrate the kernel-crushing plant with a Palm Oil mill that captures its biogas to obtain the best carbon footprint for the production of CPKO. * Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail: vijaya@mpob.gov.my INTRODUCTION Currently, carbon footprint, also known as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is such a catchphrase in the world that it has become a must for responsible producers to quantify the carbon footprint of their Products.
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determination of ghg contributions by subsystems in the Oil Palm supply chain using the lca approach
International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2011Co-Authors: Yuen May Choo, Halimah Muhamad, Zulkifli Hashim, Vijaya Subramaniam, Chiew Wei PuahAbstract:Purpose With increasing attention on sustainable development, the environmental and social relevance of Palm Oil production are now important trade issues. The life cycle assessment (LCA) study of Malaysian Oil Palm Products from mineral sOils including Palm biodiesel was aimed to provide baseline information on the environmental performance of the industry for drawing up policies pertaining to the sustainable production. The share of greenhouse gas (GHG) contribution by the various subsystems in the Oil Palm supply chain is considered here. Materials and methods The life cycle inventory data for the study were collected based on subsystems, i.e., gate-to-gate. The subsystems include activities in Oil Palm nurseries and plantations, Palm Oil mills, refineries, biodiesel plants and the use of biodiesel in diesel engine vehicles. Two scenarios were considered: extraction of crude Palm Oil (CPO) in a mill without and with a system for trapping biogas from Palm Oil mill effluent (POME). Inventory data were collected through questionnaires. On-site visits were carried out for data verification. Background data for resource exploitation and production of input materials were obtained through available databases and literature. Foreground data for all subsystems were site-specific data from nurseries, plantations, Palm Oil mills and refineries and biodiesel plants in Malaysia. Results and discussion Using a yield of 20.7 t Oil Palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB)/ha, the results showed that the production of 1 t of FFB produced 119 kg CO2 eq. The production of 1 t of CPO in a mill without and with biogas capture emitted 971 and 506 kg CO2 eq, respectively. For the production of 1 t of refined Palm Oil in a refinery which sourced the CPO from a mill without biogas capture and with biogas capture, the GHG emitted was 1,113 kg and 626 kg CO2 eq, respectively. For Palm biodiesel, 33.19 and 21.20 g CO2 eq were emitted per MJ of biodiesel produced from Palm Oil sourced from a mill without and with biogas capture, respectively. Conclusions GHG contribution by the nursery subsystem was found to be minimal. In the plantation subsystem, the major sources of GHG were from nitrogen fertilizers, transport and traction energy. For the mill, biogas from POME was the major contributor if biogas was not trapped. Excluding contribution from upstream activities, bOiler fuel and transport were the major sources of GHG in the refinery subsystem. In the biodiesel subsystem, activities for production of refined Palm Oil and methanol use were the most significant contributors.
Mukesh Sharma - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Pilot application of PalmGHG, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil greenhouse gas calculator for Oil Palm Products
Journal of Cleaner Production, 2014Co-Authors: Cécile Bessou, Laurence D. C. Chase, Ian E Henson, Amir F.n. Abdul-manan, Fahmuddin Agus, Mukesh Sharma, Llorenç Milà I Canals, Melissa ChinAbstract:The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable Palm Oil through a voluntary certification scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) were active in RSPO from 2009 to 2011, with the aim of identifying ways of achieving meaningful and verifiable reductions of GHG emissions. One of the outputs of the second group is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the life cycle assessment ap-proach to quantify major sources of emissions and sequestration for individual Palm Oil mills and their supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 with nine RSPO member companies that gave an average of 1.67 t CO2e/t crude Palm Oil (CPO), with a range of -0.02 to +8.32t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and the area of peat sOil used were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG continue to be made in order to make the tool more flexible and comprehensive, to refine default values, and to render it more user-friendly.
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PalmGHG, the RSPO greenhouse gas calculator for Oil Palm Products
2012Co-Authors: Cécile Bessou, Laurence D. C. Chase, Ian E Henson, Amir F.n. Abdul-manan, Llorenç Milà-i-canals, Fahmuddin Agus, Mukesh SharmaAbstract:The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable Palm Oil through a voluntary certification scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) have been active in RSPO between 2009-2011, with the aim of identifying ways leading to meaningful and verifiable reduction of GHG emissions. One of the outputs is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the LCA approach to quantify the major sources of emission and sequestration for a mill and its supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 on nine RSPO companies. Results gave an average of 1.03 t CO2e/t crude Palm Oil, with a wide range of -0.07 to +2.46 t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and area under peat were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG are being made, notably to amend default values and upgrade it to a user-friendly software. (Resume d'auteur)
Chiew Wei Puah - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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determination of ghg contributions by subsystems in the Oil Palm supply chain using the lca approach
International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2011Co-Authors: Yuen May Choo, Halimah Muhamad, Zulkifli Hashim, Vijaya Subramaniam, Chiew Wei PuahAbstract:Purpose With increasing attention on sustainable development, the environmental and social relevance of Palm Oil production are now important trade issues. The life cycle assessment (LCA) study of Malaysian Oil Palm Products from mineral sOils including Palm biodiesel was aimed to provide baseline information on the environmental performance of the industry for drawing up policies pertaining to the sustainable production. The share of greenhouse gas (GHG) contribution by the various subsystems in the Oil Palm supply chain is considered here. Materials and methods The life cycle inventory data for the study were collected based on subsystems, i.e., gate-to-gate. The subsystems include activities in Oil Palm nurseries and plantations, Palm Oil mills, refineries, biodiesel plants and the use of biodiesel in diesel engine vehicles. Two scenarios were considered: extraction of crude Palm Oil (CPO) in a mill without and with a system for trapping biogas from Palm Oil mill effluent (POME). Inventory data were collected through questionnaires. On-site visits were carried out for data verification. Background data for resource exploitation and production of input materials were obtained through available databases and literature. Foreground data for all subsystems were site-specific data from nurseries, plantations, Palm Oil mills and refineries and biodiesel plants in Malaysia. Results and discussion Using a yield of 20.7 t Oil Palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB)/ha, the results showed that the production of 1 t of FFB produced 119 kg CO2 eq. The production of 1 t of CPO in a mill without and with biogas capture emitted 971 and 506 kg CO2 eq, respectively. For the production of 1 t of refined Palm Oil in a refinery which sourced the CPO from a mill without biogas capture and with biogas capture, the GHG emitted was 1,113 kg and 626 kg CO2 eq, respectively. For Palm biodiesel, 33.19 and 21.20 g CO2 eq were emitted per MJ of biodiesel produced from Palm Oil sourced from a mill without and with biogas capture, respectively. Conclusions GHG contribution by the nursery subsystem was found to be minimal. In the plantation subsystem, the major sources of GHG were from nitrogen fertilizers, transport and traction energy. For the mill, biogas from POME was the major contributor if biogas was not trapped. Excluding contribution from upstream activities, bOiler fuel and transport were the major sources of GHG in the refinery subsystem. In the biodiesel subsystem, activities for production of refined Palm Oil and methanol use were the most significant contributors.
