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Lorenzo Prendini - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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scorpion sheds tail to escape consequences and implications of autotomy in Scorpions buthidae ananteris
PLOS ONE, 2015Co-Authors: Camilo I Mattoni, Solimary Garciahernandez, Ricardo Boterotrujillo, Jose A Ochoa, Andres A Ojangurenaffilastro, Ricardo Pintodarocha, Lorenzo PrendiniAbstract:Autotomy, the voluntary shedding or detachment of a body part at a determined cleavage plane, is a common anti-predation defense mechanism in several animal taxa, including arthropods. Among arachnids, autotomy has been observed in harvestmen, mites, and spiders, always involving the loss of legs. Autotomy of the opisthosoma (abdomen) was recently reported in a single species of the Neotropical buthid scorpion genus Ananteris Thorell, 1891, but few details were revealed. Based on observations in the field and laboratory, examination of material in museum collections, and scanning electron microscopy, we document autotomy of the metasoma (the hind part of the opisthosoma, or ‘tail’) in fourteen species of Ananteris. Autotomy is more common in males than females, and has not been observed in juveniles. When the scorpion is held by the metasoma, it is voluntarily severed at the joints between metasomal segments I and II, II and III, or III and IV, allowing the scorpion to escape. After detachment, the severed metasoma moves (twitches) automatically, much like the severed tail of a lizard or the severed leg of a spider, and reacts to contact, even attempting to sting. The severed surface heals rapidly, scar tissue forming in five days. The lost metasomal segments and telson cannot be regenerated. Autotomy of the metasoma and telson results in permanent loss of the posterior part of the scorpion’s digestive system (the anus is situated posteriorly on metasomal segment V) and the ability to inject venom by stinging. After autotomy, Scorpions do not defecate and can only capture small prey items. However, males can survive and mate successfully for up to eight months in the laboratory. In spite of diminished predation ability after autotomy, survival allows males to reproduce. Autotomy in Ananteris therefore appears to be an effective, adaptive, anti-predation escape mechanism.
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evolutionary morphology of the hemolymph vascular system in Scorpions a character analysis
Arthropod Structure & Development, 2012Co-Authors: B J Klusmannfricke, Lorenzo Prendini, Christian S WirknerAbstract:Phylogenetically informative characters from the internal anatomy of Scorpions were first reported more than 150 years ago, but the subject received little attention after the mid-1920s. Recent investigations, using traditional dissection, illustration and histological sectioning, microscopy, and innovative new methods for investigating complex soft tissue anatomy identified a new wealth of variation. Additionally, these investigations confirmed the phylogenetic significance of previously identified structures. Building on earlier work we present a more detailed description of the hemolymph vascular system (HVS) in Scorpions, based on comparison of the vascular structures of the heart and the branching pattern of the prosomal arteries among 45 exemplar species representing most of the major scorpion lineages. Using corrosion-casting, MicroCT in combination with computer-aided 3D-reconstruction, and scanning electron microscopy, we conceptualize a series of phylogenetically informative characters for the anterior aorta system and characters of the heart and associated structures (e.g. arrangement of the ostia) of Scorpions. Furthermore, we optimize the possible evolution of these new characters on a previous hypothesis of scorpion phylogeny, and discuss alternative character state transformations, their evolutionary consequences, and possible underlying evolutionary mechanisms acting on the HVS.
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aops oncodactylus gen et sp nov the first troglobitic urodacid urodacidae scorpiones with a re assessment of cavernicolous troglobitic and troglomorphic Scorpions
Invertebrate Systematics, 2008Co-Authors: Erich S Volschenk, Lorenzo PrendiniAbstract:We describe a new genus and species of troglomorphic scorpion from Ledge Cave, Barrow Island, off the north-western coast of Western Australia. This troglobite scorpion was initially difficult to place within the superfamily Scorpionoidea Latreille on account of its unusual morphology. Based on cladistic analysis, we demonstrate that this scorpion is phylogenetically most closely related to the endemic Australian genus Urodacus Peters (Urodacidae Pocock). The new taxon, named Aops oncodactylus, gen. et sp. nov., is the first troglobitic urodacid and the first troglobitic scorpion recorded from continental Australia. In light of this discovery, we re-assess the known diversity of troglobitic Scorpions and the troglomorphic adaptations (troglomorphies) of cavernicolous Scorpions. A distinction is recognised between the exclusive occurrence in cavernicolous habitats and the presence of troglomorphies, which are exhibited by some endogean (humicolous) Scorpions. The definition of troglobitic Scorpions is limited to species that are both restricted to cavernico- lous habitats and exhibit pronounced troglomorphies. Only 20 scorpion species meet both criteria and are considered unequivocally troglobitic according to this definition.
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reinterpretation of the silurian scorpion proscorpius osborni whitfield integrating data from palaeozoic and recent Scorpions
Palaeontology, 2008Co-Authors: Jason A Dunlop, Erik O Tetlie, Lorenzo PrendiniAbstract:Abstract: The morphology of the Late Silurian (Přidoli) scorpion Proscorpius osborni (Whitfield, 1885a) (Arachnida: Scorpiones), from the Phelps Member of the Fiddlers Green Formation of New York, the ‘Bertie Waterlime’ of earlier stratigraphic schemes, is revised based on studies of new and existing material (a total of 32 specimens). Previous reports of four cheliceral articles, gnathobasic coxae, a labium and gill slits in P. osborni can be dismissed. However, we confirm the presence of both median and compound lateral eyes, a pair of tarsal claws, albeit on a more digitigrade foot compared to that of modern Scorpions, more than five ventral mesosomal sclerites and a fairly modern pattern of metasomal (i.e. tail) carinae. The co-occurring Archaeophonus eurypteroidesKjellesvig-Waering, 1966 and Stoermeroscorpio delicatusKjellesvig-Waering, 1986 are regarded as junior synonyms of P. osborni. Fossil scorpion higher systematics is plagued by a plethora of unnecessary and largely monotypic higher taxa and we draw on the results of Jeram’s cladistic analysis from 1998 to synonymize formally a series of families and superfamilies with Proscorpiidae Scudder, 1885.
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comparative morphology of the hemolymph vascular system in Scorpions a survey using corrosion casting microct and 3d reconstruction
Journal of Morphology, 2007Co-Authors: Christian S Wirkner, Lorenzo PrendiniAbstract:Although Scorpions are one of the better known groups of Arthropoda, detailed knowledge of their anatomy remains superficial. This contribution presents the first comprehensive investigation of the gross mor- phology of the scorpion vascular system, based on a sur- vey of species representing all major lineages of the order, using classical and modern non-destructive techniques in combination with three-dimensional reconstruction. The investigation reveals that the hemolymph vascular system (HVS) of Scorpiones comprises a central pumping heart which extends the entire length of the mesosoma and is enclosed in a pericardium. Several arteries branch off the heart to supply different organs and body regions. Two different anterior aorta major branching patterns are identified among the species investigated. Arteries that branch off the anterior aorta system supply the appen- dages (chelicerae, pedipalps, and walking legs) and the central nerve mass with a complex arterial network. This study of the HVS of Scorpions provides further evidence that the vascular systems of euarthropods can be highly complex. Use of the term ''open circulatory system'' within arthropods is re-emphasized, as it refers to the general or- ganization of the body cavity (i.e. mixocoely) rather than to the complexity of the circulatory system. J. Morphol.
Prashant P Sharma - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Developmental gene expression as a phylogenetic data class: support for the monophyly of Arachnopulmonata
Development Genes and Evolution, 2020Co-Authors: Erik D. Nolan, Carlos E. Santibáñez-lópez, Prashant P SharmaAbstract:Despite application of genome-scale datasets, the phylogenetic placement of Scorpions within arachnids remains contentious between two different phylogenetic data classes. Paleontologists continue to recover Scorpions in a basally branching position, partly owing to their morphological similarity to extinct marine orders like Eurypterida (sea Scorpions). Phylogenomic datasets consistently recover Scorpions in a derived position, as the sister group of Tetrapulmonata (a clade of arachnids that includes spiders). To adjudicate between these hypotheses using a rare genomic change (RGC), we leveraged the recent discovery of ancient paralogy in spiders and Scorpions to assess phylogenetic placement. We identified homologs of four transcription factors required for appendage patterning ( dachshund , homothorax , extradenticle , and optomotor blind ) in arthropods that are known to be duplicated in spiders. Using genomic resources for a spider, a scorpion, and a harvestman, we conducted gene tree analyses and assayed expression patterns of scorpion gene duplicates. Here we show that Scorpions, like spiders, retain two copies of all four transcription factors, whereas arachnid orders like mites and harvestmen bear a single copy. A survey of embryonic expression patterns of the scorpion paralogs closely matches those of their spider counterparts, with one paralog consistently retaining the putatively ancestral pattern found in the harvestman, as well as the mite, and/or other outgroups. These data comprise a rare genomic change in chelicerate phylogeny supporting the inference of a distal placement of Scorpions. Beyond demonstrating the diagnostic power of developmental genetic data as a phylogenetic data class, a derived placement of Scorpions within the arachnids, together with an array of stem-group Paleozoic Scorpions that occupied marine habitats, effectively rules out a scenario of a single colonization of terrestrial habitat within Chelicerata, even in tree topologies contrived to recover the monophyly of Arachnida.
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integration of phylogenomics and molecular modeling reveals lineage specific diversification of toxins in Scorpions
PeerJ, 2018Co-Authors: Carlos E Santibanezlopez, Ricardo Kriebel, Jesus A Ballesteros, Nathaniel Rush, Zachary L Witter, John Williams, Daniel Janies, Prashant P SharmaAbstract:Scorpions have evolved a variety of toxins with a plethora of biological targets, but characterizing their evolution has been limited by the lack of a comprehensive phylogenetic hypothesis of scorpion relationships grounded in modern, genome-scale datasets. Disagreements over scorpion higher-level systematics have also incurred challenges to previous interpretations of venom families as ancestral or derived. To redress these gaps, we assessed the phylogenomic relationships of Scorpions using the most comprehensive taxonomic sampling to date. We surveyed genomic resources for the incidence of calcins (a type of calcium channel toxin), which were previously known only from 16 scorpion species. Here, we show that calcins are diverse, but phylogenetically restricted only to parvorder Iurida, one of the two basal branches of Scorpions. The other branch of Scorpions, Buthida, bear the related LKTx toxins (absent in Iurida), but lack calcins entirely. Analysis of sequences and molecular models demonstrates remarkable phylogenetic inertia within both calcins and LKTx genes. These results provide the first synapomorphies (shared derived traits) for the recently redefined clades Buthida and Iurida, constituting the only known case of such traits defined from the morphology of molecules.
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a revised dated phylogeny of Scorpions phylogenomic support for ancient divergence of the temperate gondwanan family bothriuridae
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 2018Co-Authors: Prashant P Sharma, Caitlin M Baker, Julia G Cosgrove, Joanne E Johnson, Jill T Oberski, Robert J Raven, Mark S Harvey, Sarah L Boyer, Gonzalo GiribetAbstract:Abstract The scorpion family Bothriuridae occupies a subset of landmasses formerly constituting East and West temperate Gondwana, but its relationship to other scorpion families is in question. Whereas morphological data have strongly supported a sister group relationship of Bothriuridae and the superfamily Scorpionoidea, a recent phylogenomic analysis recovered a basal placement of bothriurids within Iurida, albeit sampling only a single exemplar. Here we reexamined the phylogenetic placement of the family Bothriuridae, sampling six bothriurid exemplars representing both East and West Gondwana, using transcriptomic data. Our results demonstrate that the sister group relationship of Bothriuridae to the clade (“Chactoidea” + Scorpionoidea) is supported by the inclusion of additional bothriurid taxa, and that this placement is insensitive to matrix completeness or partitioning by evolutionary rate. We also estimated divergence times within the order Scorpiones using multiple fossil calibrations, to infer whether the family Bothriuridae is sufficiently old to be characterized as a true Gondwanan lineage. We show that Scorpions underwent ancient diversification between the Devonian and early Carboniferous. The age interval of the bothriurids sampled (a derived group that excludes exemplars from South Africa) spans the timing of breakup of temperate Gondwana.
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evidence of duplicated hox genes in the most recent common ancestor of extant Scorpions
Evolution & Development, 2015Co-Authors: Edmundo Gonzalezsantillan, Prashant P Sharma, Marc A Santiago, Lionel Monod, Ward C WheelerAbstract:Scorpions (order Scorpiones) are unusual among arthropods, both for the extreme heteronomy of their bauplan and for the high gene family turnover exhibited in their genomes. These phenomena appear to be correlated, as two scorpion species have been shown to possess nearly twice the number of Hox genes present in most arthropods. Segmentally offset anterior expression boundaries of a subset of Hox paralogs have been shown to correspond to transitions in segmental identities in the scorpion posterior tagmata, suggesting that posterior heteronomy in Scorpions may have been achieved by neofunctionalization of Hox paralogs. However, both the first scorpion genome sequenced and the developmental genetic data are based on exemplars of Buthidae, one of 19 families of Scorpions. It is therefore not known whether Hox paralogy is limited to Buthidae or widespread among Scorpions. We surveyed 24 high throughput transcriptomes and the single whole genome available for Scorpions, in order to test the prediction that Hox gene duplications are common to the order. We used gene tree parsimony to infer whether the paralogy was consistent with a duplication event in the scorpion common ancestor. Here we show that duplicated Hox genes in non-buthid Scorpions occur in six of the ten Hox classes. Gene tree topologies and parsimony-based reconciliation of the gene trees are consistent with a duplication event in the most recent common ancestor of Scorpions. These results suggest that a Hox paralogy, and by extension the model of posterior patterning established in a buthid, can be extended to non-Buthidae Scorpions.
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phylogenomic resolution of Scorpions reveals multilevel discordance with morphological phylogenetic signal
Proceedings of The Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2015Co-Authors: Prashant P Sharma, Edmundo Gonzalezsantillan, Rosa Fernandez, Lauren A Esposito, Lionel MonodAbstract:Scorpions represent an iconic lineage of arthropods, historically renowned for their unique bauplan, ancient fossil record and venom potency. Yet, higher level relationships of Scorpions, based exclusively on morphology, remain virtually untested, and no multilocus molecular phylogeny has been deployed heretofore towards assessing the basal tree topology. We applied a phylogenomic assessment to resolve scorpion phylogeny, for the first time, to our knowledge, sampling extensive molecular sequence data from all superfamilies and examining basal relationships with up to 5025 genes. Analyses of supermatrices as well as species tree approaches converged upon a robust basal topology of Scorpions that is entirely at odds with traditional systematics and controverts previous understanding of scorpion evolutionary history. All analyses unanimously support a single origin of katoikogenic development, a form of parental investment wherein embryos are nurtured by direct connections to the parent9s digestive system. Based on the phylogeny obtained herein, we propose the following systematic emendations: Caraboctonidae is transferred to Chactoidea new superfamilial assignment ; superfamily Bothriuroidea revalidated is resurrected and Bothriuridae transferred therein; and Chaerilida and Pseudochactida are synonymized with Buthida new parvordinal synonymies .
Thorsten Moritz - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Hemprich’s long-eared bat (Otonycteris hemprichii) as a predator of Scorpions: whispering echolocation, passive gleaning and prey selection
Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 2011Co-Authors: Marc Holderied, Carmi Korine, Thorsten MoritzAbstract:Over 70% of the droppings of the gleaning bat Otonycteris hemprichii can contain scorpion fragments. Yet, some Scorpions found in its desert habitat possess venom of the highest known toxicity, rendering them a very dangerous prey. In this study, we describe how O. hemprichii catches and handles Scorpions, quantify its flight and echolocation behaviour in the field, investigate what sensory modality it uses to detect Scorpions, and test whether it selects Scorpions according to their size or toxicity. We confirmed that O. hemprichi is a whispering bat (approx. 80 dB peSPL) with short, multi-harmonic calls. In a flight room we also confirmed that O. hemprichii detects Scorpions by their walking noises. Amplitudes of such noises were measured and they reach the flying bat at or below the level of echoes of the loess substrate. Bats dropped straight onto moving Scorpions and were stung frequently even straight in their face. Stings did not change the bats’ behaviour and caused no signs of poisoning. Scorpions were eaten including poison gland and stinger. Bats showed no preference neither for any of the scorpion species nor their size suggesting they are generalist predators with regard to Scorpions.
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hemprich s long eared bat otonycteris hemprichii as a predator of Scorpions whispering echolocation passive gleaning and prey selection
Journal of Comparative Physiology A-neuroethology Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology, 2011Co-Authors: Marc Holderied, Carmi Korine, Thorsten MoritzAbstract:Over 70% of the droppings of the gleaning bat Otonycteris hemprichii can contain scorpion fragments. Yet, some Scorpions found in its desert habitat possess venom of the highest known toxicity, rendering them a very dangerous prey. In this study, we describe how O. hemprichii catches and handles Scorpions, quantify its flight and echolocation behaviour in the field, investigate what sensory modality it uses to detect Scorpions, and test whether it selects Scorpions according to their size or toxicity. We confirmed that O. hemprichi is a whispering bat (approx. 80 dB peSPL) with short, multi-harmonic calls. In a flight room we also confirmed that O. hemprichii detects Scorpions by their walking noises. Amplitudes of such noises were measured and they reach the flying bat at or below the level of echoes of the loess substrate. Bats dropped straight onto moving Scorpions and were stung frequently even straight in their face. Stings did not change the bats’ behaviour and caused no signs of poisoning. Scorpions were eaten including poison gland and stinger. Bats showed no preference neither for any of the scorpion species nor their size suggesting they are generalist predators with regard to Scorpions.
Zhijian Cao - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Ion channel modulation by scorpion hemolymph and its defensin ingredients highlights origin of neurotoxins in telson formed in Paleozoic Scorpions
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2020Co-Authors: Lanxia Meng, Yonghui Zhao, Zili Xie, Xingchen Guo, Zhanyong Zhu, Zongyun Chen, Longhua Zhang, Zhijian CaoAbstract:An increasing number of scorpion fossils indicate that the venomous telson developed from the sharp telson in sea Scorpions into the extant scorpion-like telson in aquatic Scorpions in the Paleozoic Era and then further evolved into the fetal venom system. This hypothesis led us to evaluate the inhibition of scorpion venom-sensitive potassium channels by hemolymph from the scorpion Mesobuthus martensii. Scorpion hemolymph diluted 1:10 inhibited Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv1.3 and SK3 potassium channel currents by 76.4%, 90.2%, 85.8%, and 52.8%, respectively. These discoveries encouraged us to investigate the functional similarity between the more ancient defensin ingredients in hemolymph and the evolved neurotoxins in the venom. In addition to the expression of the representative defensin BmKDfsin3 and BmKDfsin5 in both venomous and non-venomous tissues, NMR analysis revealed structural similarities between scorpion defensin and neurotoxin. Functional experiments further indicated that scorpion defensin used the same mechanism as classical neurotoxin to block the neurotoxin-sensitive Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv1.3 and SK3 channels. These findings emphasize the likelihood that scorpion defensins evolved into neurotoxins that were adapted to the emergence of the scorpion telson from the sharp telson of sea Scorpions into the extant scorpion-like telson in aquatic Scorpions in the Paleozoic Era.
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history of study updated checklist distribution and key of Scorpions arachnida scorpiones from china
Zoological Research, 2014Co-Authors: D I Zhiyong, Zhijian Cao, Zizhong Yang, Shijin Yin, L I WenxinAbstract:This review describes the history of taxonomic research on Scorpions and provides an updated checklist and key of the Scorpions currently known in China. This checklist is based on a thorough review of the extant literatures on scorpion species whose presence has been confirmed in China through field expeditions and examination of scorpion collections, excepting a few members that have no clear distribution or are currently in doubt. Totally, the scorpion fauna of China consists of 53 species and subspecies belonging to 12 genera crossing five families, with 33 species (62.3%) and one genus being recorded as endemic. Additionally, identification key and the distribution of Scorpions from China are provided.
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Notes on the Scorpions (Arachnida, Scorpiones) from Xizang with the redescription of Scorpiops jendeki Kovařík, 2000 (Scorpiones, Euscorpiidae) from Yunnan (China).
ZooKeys, 2013Co-Authors: Zhijian CaoAbstract:Until now, there are 26 scorpion species of 7 genera of 5 families recorded in Xizang (China). Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet) is the scorpion biodiversity richest area in China (53 scorpion species of 12 genera of 5 families), also the highest altitude habitat of Scorpions in the world. We present information of type specimens, an identification key of the scorpion species from Xizang, the distribution, updated feature pictures, and discussion on the disputed species. The redescriptions of Scorpiops jendeki Kovařik, 2000 (Yunnan) and Scorpiops tibetanus Hirst, 1911 (Xizang), comments and feature figures of species of genus Scorpiops are provided for identification.
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Transcriptome analysis of the venom gland of the scorpion Scorpiops jendeki: implication for the evolution of the scorpion venom arsenal.
BMC Genomics, 2009Co-Authors: Ruiming Zhao, Jun Liu, Zhijian CaoAbstract:The family Euscorpiidae, which covers Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, is one of the most widely distributed scorpion groups. However, no studies have been conducted on the venom of a Euscorpiidae species yet. In this work, we performed a transcriptomic approach for characterizing the venom components from a Euscorpiidae scorpion, Scorpiops jendeki. There are ten known types of venom peptides and proteins obtained from Scorpiops jendeki. Great diversity is observed in primary sequences of most highly expressed types. The most highly expressed types are cytolytic peptides and serine proteases. Neurotoxins specific for sodium channels, which are major groups of venom components from Buthidae Scorpions, are not detected in this study. In addition to those known types of venom peptides and proteins, we also obtain nine atypical types of venom molecules which haven't been observed in any other scorpion species studied to date. This work provides the first set of cDNAs from Scorpiops jendeki, and one of the few transcriptomic analyses from a scorpion. This allows the characterization of a large number of venom molecules, belonging to either known or atypical types of scorpion venom peptides and proteins. Besides, our work could provide some clues to the evolution of the scorpion venom arsenal by comparison with venom data from other scorpion lineages.
Marc Holderied - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Hemprich’s long-eared bat (Otonycteris hemprichii) as a predator of Scorpions: whispering echolocation, passive gleaning and prey selection
Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 2011Co-Authors: Marc Holderied, Carmi Korine, Thorsten MoritzAbstract:Over 70% of the droppings of the gleaning bat Otonycteris hemprichii can contain scorpion fragments. Yet, some Scorpions found in its desert habitat possess venom of the highest known toxicity, rendering them a very dangerous prey. In this study, we describe how O. hemprichii catches and handles Scorpions, quantify its flight and echolocation behaviour in the field, investigate what sensory modality it uses to detect Scorpions, and test whether it selects Scorpions according to their size or toxicity. We confirmed that O. hemprichi is a whispering bat (approx. 80 dB peSPL) with short, multi-harmonic calls. In a flight room we also confirmed that O. hemprichii detects Scorpions by their walking noises. Amplitudes of such noises were measured and they reach the flying bat at or below the level of echoes of the loess substrate. Bats dropped straight onto moving Scorpions and were stung frequently even straight in their face. Stings did not change the bats’ behaviour and caused no signs of poisoning. Scorpions were eaten including poison gland and stinger. Bats showed no preference neither for any of the scorpion species nor their size suggesting they are generalist predators with regard to Scorpions.
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hemprich s long eared bat otonycteris hemprichii as a predator of Scorpions whispering echolocation passive gleaning and prey selection
Journal of Comparative Physiology A-neuroethology Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology, 2011Co-Authors: Marc Holderied, Carmi Korine, Thorsten MoritzAbstract:Over 70% of the droppings of the gleaning bat Otonycteris hemprichii can contain scorpion fragments. Yet, some Scorpions found in its desert habitat possess venom of the highest known toxicity, rendering them a very dangerous prey. In this study, we describe how O. hemprichii catches and handles Scorpions, quantify its flight and echolocation behaviour in the field, investigate what sensory modality it uses to detect Scorpions, and test whether it selects Scorpions according to their size or toxicity. We confirmed that O. hemprichi is a whispering bat (approx. 80 dB peSPL) with short, multi-harmonic calls. In a flight room we also confirmed that O. hemprichii detects Scorpions by their walking noises. Amplitudes of such noises were measured and they reach the flying bat at or below the level of echoes of the loess substrate. Bats dropped straight onto moving Scorpions and were stung frequently even straight in their face. Stings did not change the bats’ behaviour and caused no signs of poisoning. Scorpions were eaten including poison gland and stinger. Bats showed no preference neither for any of the scorpion species nor their size suggesting they are generalist predators with regard to Scorpions.
