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T. Boekhout - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Tremella Persoon (1794)
The Yeasts, 2011Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, T. BoekhoutAbstract:Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the genus Tremella. In the determination of the asexual reproduction it is seen that yeast cultures of Tremella (and Sirobasidium) species predominantly are whitish to cream or light tan, unlike basidiocarps, i.e., they are mostly not distinguishable on the basis of color. In the sexual reproduction it is found that monobasidiospore isolates of heterothallic species bud, giving rise to yeast states in culture, and the mycelia typically develop only when compatible strains are paired. Pairing of suitable cells yields a rapid response to complementary pheromones; budding ceases, mating tubes develop and fuse, and the dikaryotic hyphal state is initiated. The chapter also discusses physiology/biochemistry and phylogenetic placement of the genus. The salient physiological characteristics of yeast states of Tremella and Holtermannia species are also presented. In the systematic discussion of the species growth of yeast state in 2% glucose in yeast nitrogen base, growth of yeast state on 5% malt agar, growth of yeast state as Dalmau culture on potato dextrose agar and 5% malt, basidiocarps, gene sequence accession numbers, CBS 6965, ecology and distribution, and clinical importance are determined.
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Sirobasidium de Lagerheim & Patouillard (1892)
The Yeasts, 2011Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, José Paulo Sampaio, T. BoekhoutAbstract:Publisher Summary This chapter studies the genus Sirobasidium. In asexual reproduction yeast states arise with the germination of large clavate, passively released basidiospores (statismospores); alternatively, they originate from ballistoconidia produced by the basidiospores. In sexual reproduction the dikaryotic hyphae have clamp connections and rare haustorial branches are present in the interface with an associated ascomycetous stroma. This chapter further examines physiology, biochemistry, and phylogenetic placement. The type species mentioned is Sirobasidium sanguineum. The species accepted are Sirobasidium intermedium and Sirobasidium magnum. The systematic discussion of the species includes growth of yeast state on 5% malt extract agar, growth of yeast state on the surface of assimilation media, growth of yeast state as Dalmau plate culture on morphology agar, basidiocarps, fermentation, gene sequence accession numbers for CBS 7805, cell carbohydrates, origin of the strains studied, reference strain, systematics, ecology, biotechnology, and agriculture and food.
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Sirobasidium de lagerheim patouillard 1892
The Yeasts (Fifth Edition), 2011Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, José Paulo Sampaio, T. BoekhoutAbstract:Publisher Summary This chapter studies the genus Sirobasidium. In asexual reproduction yeast states arise with the germination of large clavate, passively released basidiospores (statismospores); alternatively, they originate from ballistoconidia produced by the basidiospores. In sexual reproduction the dikaryotic hyphae have clamp connections and rare haustorial branches are present in the interface with an associated ascomycetous stroma. This chapter further examines physiology, biochemistry, and phylogenetic placement. The type species mentioned is Sirobasidium sanguineum. The species accepted are Sirobasidium intermedium and Sirobasidium magnum. The systematic discussion of the species includes growth of yeast state on 5% malt extract agar, growth of yeast state on the surface of assimilation media, growth of yeast state as Dalmau plate culture on morphology agar, basidiocarps, fermentation, gene sequence accession numbers for CBS 7805, cell carbohydrates, origin of the strains studied, reference strain, systematics, ecology, biotechnology, and agriculture and food.
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Fibulobasidium Bandoni (1979)
The Yeasts, 2011Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, T. Boekhout, José Paulo SampaioAbstract:Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the genus Fibulobasidium. It provides a systematic discussion of the species and concludes with comments on the genus. The diagnosis of the genus is done on the basis of asexual, sexual, physiology and biochemistry, and phylogenetic placement. In asexual reproduction the haploid yeast state arises at germination of large, passively released basidiospores (i.e., statismospores) or, for F.inconspicuum and F.sirobasidioides, from ballistoconidia produced by the basidiospores at germination, or by budding of special conidiogenous cells, or sometimes basidia. Haploid blastoconidia develop on hyphae of the basidiocarp in F.murrhardtense, a species in which ballistoconidia are not known. Relatively few collections have been examined of any species, and both ballistoconidia and blastoconidia might be expected to occur in all three known taxa. In sexual reproduction the compatibility system in F.inconspicuum is tetrapolar. Dikaryotic hyphae have clamp connections, but in spite of the close association with probable host fungi in F.inconspicuum and F.sirobasidioides, no haustorial branches have been reported in any of the three species. Basidiocarps are gelatinous in all species; those of the single collection of F.murrhardtense were exposed on decaying wood, as in species of Sirobasidium. In F.inconspicuum and F.sirobasidioides the basidiomes are thus far only known as subcortical forms throughout their development. Basidia are most commonly catenate, with the first terminal and subsequent ones developing by expansion of basal clamp connections of previous basidia rather than from contiguous cells between clamp connections. The basidia are four-celled, with each cell producing a single narrowly clavate to fusiform or Cymbiform sessile statismospore.
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Tremelloid genera with yeast phases Fibulobasidium Bandoni, Holtermannia Saccardo & Traverso, Sirobasidium de Lagerheim & Patouillard, Tremella Persoon, Trimorphomyces Bandoni & Oberwinkler
The Yeasts, 1998Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, T. BoekhoutAbstract:This chapter describes the various Tremelloid genera with yeast phases. Tremellales include only three families: Tetragoniomycetaceae , Sirobasidiaceae , and Tremellaceae . Out of these, only two of the three families, Tremellaceae and Sirobasidiaceae , have known yeast states. The species included in Sirobasidiaceae include Fibulobasidium inconspicuum , Sirobasidium intermedium , and Sirobasidium magnum . The species included in Tremellaceae include Bulleromyces albus, Holtermannia corniformis, Tremella aurantia, Tremella brasiliensis, Tremella cinnabarina, Tremella coalescens, and Tremella encephala. The cells of Fibulobasidium inconspicuum , after undergoing growth on malt agar for three days at 25° C, appear as subglobose to globose and as single or in pairs. After one month at 20° C, the streak culture is gray-brownish-yellow, pasty, partly wrinkled and partly smooth with a lobate edge. After undergoing growth on 5% malt extract agar for 5 days at 25° C, the cells of Sirobasidium intermedium appear as ellipsoidal to subglobose. Budding is polar or occasionally multilateral, sessile or on short denticles, and with sympodial proliferation. The colonies are yellowish to yellowish-cream, mucoid, smooth shiny, pale and with the margin entire.
R. J. Bandoni - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Sirobasidium de Lagerheim & Patouillard (1892)
The Yeasts, 2011Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, José Paulo Sampaio, T. BoekhoutAbstract:Publisher Summary This chapter studies the genus Sirobasidium. In asexual reproduction yeast states arise with the germination of large clavate, passively released basidiospores (statismospores); alternatively, they originate from ballistoconidia produced by the basidiospores. In sexual reproduction the dikaryotic hyphae have clamp connections and rare haustorial branches are present in the interface with an associated ascomycetous stroma. This chapter further examines physiology, biochemistry, and phylogenetic placement. The type species mentioned is Sirobasidium sanguineum. The species accepted are Sirobasidium intermedium and Sirobasidium magnum. The systematic discussion of the species includes growth of yeast state on 5% malt extract agar, growth of yeast state on the surface of assimilation media, growth of yeast state as Dalmau plate culture on morphology agar, basidiocarps, fermentation, gene sequence accession numbers for CBS 7805, cell carbohydrates, origin of the strains studied, reference strain, systematics, ecology, biotechnology, and agriculture and food.
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Tremella Persoon (1794)
The Yeasts, 2011Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, T. BoekhoutAbstract:Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the genus Tremella. In the determination of the asexual reproduction it is seen that yeast cultures of Tremella (and Sirobasidium) species predominantly are whitish to cream or light tan, unlike basidiocarps, i.e., they are mostly not distinguishable on the basis of color. In the sexual reproduction it is found that monobasidiospore isolates of heterothallic species bud, giving rise to yeast states in culture, and the mycelia typically develop only when compatible strains are paired. Pairing of suitable cells yields a rapid response to complementary pheromones; budding ceases, mating tubes develop and fuse, and the dikaryotic hyphal state is initiated. The chapter also discusses physiology/biochemistry and phylogenetic placement of the genus. The salient physiological characteristics of yeast states of Tremella and Holtermannia species are also presented. In the systematic discussion of the species growth of yeast state in 2% glucose in yeast nitrogen base, growth of yeast state on 5% malt agar, growth of yeast state as Dalmau culture on potato dextrose agar and 5% malt, basidiocarps, gene sequence accession numbers, CBS 6965, ecology and distribution, and clinical importance are determined.
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Sirobasidium de lagerheim patouillard 1892
The Yeasts (Fifth Edition), 2011Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, José Paulo Sampaio, T. BoekhoutAbstract:Publisher Summary This chapter studies the genus Sirobasidium. In asexual reproduction yeast states arise with the germination of large clavate, passively released basidiospores (statismospores); alternatively, they originate from ballistoconidia produced by the basidiospores. In sexual reproduction the dikaryotic hyphae have clamp connections and rare haustorial branches are present in the interface with an associated ascomycetous stroma. This chapter further examines physiology, biochemistry, and phylogenetic placement. The type species mentioned is Sirobasidium sanguineum. The species accepted are Sirobasidium intermedium and Sirobasidium magnum. The systematic discussion of the species includes growth of yeast state on 5% malt extract agar, growth of yeast state on the surface of assimilation media, growth of yeast state as Dalmau plate culture on morphology agar, basidiocarps, fermentation, gene sequence accession numbers for CBS 7805, cell carbohydrates, origin of the strains studied, reference strain, systematics, ecology, biotechnology, and agriculture and food.
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Fibulobasidium Bandoni (1979)
The Yeasts, 2011Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, T. Boekhout, José Paulo SampaioAbstract:Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the genus Fibulobasidium. It provides a systematic discussion of the species and concludes with comments on the genus. The diagnosis of the genus is done on the basis of asexual, sexual, physiology and biochemistry, and phylogenetic placement. In asexual reproduction the haploid yeast state arises at germination of large, passively released basidiospores (i.e., statismospores) or, for F.inconspicuum and F.sirobasidioides, from ballistoconidia produced by the basidiospores at germination, or by budding of special conidiogenous cells, or sometimes basidia. Haploid blastoconidia develop on hyphae of the basidiocarp in F.murrhardtense, a species in which ballistoconidia are not known. Relatively few collections have been examined of any species, and both ballistoconidia and blastoconidia might be expected to occur in all three known taxa. In sexual reproduction the compatibility system in F.inconspicuum is tetrapolar. Dikaryotic hyphae have clamp connections, but in spite of the close association with probable host fungi in F.inconspicuum and F.sirobasidioides, no haustorial branches have been reported in any of the three species. Basidiocarps are gelatinous in all species; those of the single collection of F.murrhardtense were exposed on decaying wood, as in species of Sirobasidium. In F.inconspicuum and F.sirobasidioides the basidiomes are thus far only known as subcortical forms throughout their development. Basidia are most commonly catenate, with the first terminal and subsequent ones developing by expansion of basal clamp connections of previous basidia rather than from contiguous cells between clamp connections. The basidia are four-celled, with each cell producing a single narrowly clavate to fusiform or Cymbiform sessile statismospore.
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Tremelloid genera with yeast phases Fibulobasidium Bandoni, Holtermannia Saccardo & Traverso, Sirobasidium de Lagerheim & Patouillard, Tremella Persoon, Trimorphomyces Bandoni & Oberwinkler
The Yeasts, 1998Co-Authors: R. J. Bandoni, T. BoekhoutAbstract:This chapter describes the various Tremelloid genera with yeast phases. Tremellales include only three families: Tetragoniomycetaceae , Sirobasidiaceae , and Tremellaceae . Out of these, only two of the three families, Tremellaceae and Sirobasidiaceae , have known yeast states. The species included in Sirobasidiaceae include Fibulobasidium inconspicuum , Sirobasidium intermedium , and Sirobasidium magnum . The species included in Tremellaceae include Bulleromyces albus, Holtermannia corniformis, Tremella aurantia, Tremella brasiliensis, Tremella cinnabarina, Tremella coalescens, and Tremella encephala. The cells of Fibulobasidium inconspicuum , after undergoing growth on malt agar for three days at 25° C, appear as subglobose to globose and as single or in pairs. After one month at 20° C, the streak culture is gray-brownish-yellow, pasty, partly wrinkled and partly smooth with a lobate edge. After undergoing growth on 5% malt extract agar for 5 days at 25° C, the cells of Sirobasidium intermedium appear as ellipsoidal to subglobose. Budding is polar or occasionally multilateral, sessile or on short denticles, and with sympodial proliferation. The colonies are yellowish to yellowish-cream, mucoid, smooth shiny, pale and with the margin entire.
Fernando Carlos Pagnocca - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Fungal diversity associated with Brazilian energy transmission towers
EUA, 2015Co-Authors: Ld Sette, Passarini Mrz, Rodrigues A, Rr Leal, Simioni Kcm, Fs Nobre, Br ,de Brito, Aj ,da Rocha, Fernando Carlos PagnoccaAbstract:Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)The present work profiled the fungal community structure found in Brazilian energy transmission tower with signs of corrosion and/or biofilm formation using cloning (ITS-rRNA gene libraries) and culture-dependent technique. A total of 31 isolates comprising 10 filamentous fungi and 21 yeasts were recovered from enrichment cultures. As determined by polyphasic taxonomy 9 genera and 13 species were identified including Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Candida pseudointermedia, Candida tropicalis, Cryptococcus laurentii, Debaryomyces nepalensis, Exophiala dermatitidis, Fusarium sp., Fusarium solani, Paecilomyces lilacinus, Trichoderma citrinoviride, Trichoderma longibrachiatum, and Pichia guilliermondii. Metagenomic analyses based on 160 clone sequences revealed 30 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) comprising 20 OTUs of filamentous fungi and 10 OTUs of yeasts. The majority of OTUs were related to the genera Capnobotryella, Cryptococcus, Devriesia, Fellomyces, Fusarium, Kockovaella, Panaeolus, Rhodotorula, Sirobasidium, Sporobolomyces, Strelitziana and Teratosphaeria. Although members of the fungal community from transmission tower samples are ubiquitous fungi commonly found in other environments, some have been related to microbiologically-influenced corrosion of metals. Comparisons between fungal community composition obtained by both culture-dependent and independent methods highlighted the different aspects of the mycobiota, emphazising the need of complementary approaches to assess the microbial assemblage of unusual environments.4415363Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)FAPESP [06600-1/2008, 50139-4/2007
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Fungal diversity associated with Brazilian energy transmission towers
Fungal Diversity, 2010Co-Authors: Lara Durães Sette, Michel Rodrigo Zambrano Passarini, Andre Rodrigues, Rebeca Rocha Leal, Karen Christina Marques Simioni, Fernando Suzigan Nobre, Bruna Ricci Brito, Adriano Jorge Rocha, Fernando Carlos PagnoccaAbstract:The present work profiled the fungal community structure found in Brazilian energy transmission tower with signs of corrosion and/or biofilm formation using cloning (ITS-rRNA gene libraries) and culture-dependent technique. A total of 31 isolates comprising 10 filamentous fungi and 21 yeasts were recovered from enrichment cultures. As determined by polyphasic taxonomy 9 genera and 13 species were identified including Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans , Candida pseudointermedia , Candida tropicalis , Cryptococcus laurentii , Debaryomyces nepalensis , Exophiala dermatitidis, Fusarium sp., Fusarium solani , Paecilomyces lilacinus, Trichoderma citrinoviride, Trichoderma longibrachiatum, and Pichia guilliermondii. Metagenomic analyses based on 160 clone sequences revealed 30 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) comprising 20 OTUs of filamentous fungi and 10 OTUs of yeasts. The majority of OTUs were related to the genera Capnobotryella, Cryptococcus, Devriesia , Fellomyces, Fusarium, Kockovaella, Panaeolus, Rhodotorula , Sirobasidium, Sporobolomyces, Strelitziana and Teratosphaeria . Although members of the fungal community from transmission tower samples are ubiquitous fungi commonly found in other environments, some have been related to microbiologically-influenced corrosion of metals. Comparisons between fungal community composition obtained by both culture-dependent and independent methods highlighted the different aspects of the mycobiota, emphazising the need of complementary approaches to assess the microbial assemblage of unusual environments.
R J Bandoni - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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On an undescribed species of Fibulobasidium
Canadian Journal of Botany, 1998Co-Authors: R J BandoniAbstract:A new fungal taxon, Fibulobasidium sirobasidioides Bandoni sp.nov., is described and illustrated. Basidiomata develop beneath the bark of recently dead branches and trunks of Acer macrophyllum Pursh in British Columbia; they are characterized by superficially Sirobasidium-like chains of basidia.Key words: Fibulobasidium, Sirobasidium, Sirobasidiaceae, taxonomy.
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tremelloid genera with yeast phases fibulobasidium bandoni holtermannia saccardo traverso Sirobasidium de lagerheim patouillard tremella persoon trimorphomyces bandoni oberwinkler
The Yeasts (Fourth Edition)#R##N#A Taxonomic Study, 1998Co-Authors: R J Bandoni, T. BoekhoutAbstract:This chapter describes the various Tremelloid genera with yeast phases. Tremellales include only three families: Tetragoniomycetaceae , Sirobasidiaceae , and Tremellaceae . Out of these, only two of the three families, Tremellaceae and Sirobasidiaceae , have known yeast states. The species included in Sirobasidiaceae include Fibulobasidium inconspicuum , Sirobasidium intermedium , and Sirobasidium magnum . The species included in Tremellaceae include Bulleromyces albus, Holtermannia corniformis, Tremella aurantia, Tremella brasiliensis, Tremella cinnabarina, Tremella coalescens, and Tremella encephala. The cells of Fibulobasidium inconspicuum , after undergoing growth on malt agar for three days at 25° C, appear as subglobose to globose and as single or in pairs. After one month at 20° C, the streak culture is gray-brownish-yellow, pasty, partly wrinkled and partly smooth with a lobate edge. After undergoing growth on 5% malt extract agar for 5 days at 25° C, the cells of Sirobasidium intermedium appear as ellipsoidal to subglobose. Budding is polar or occasionally multilateral, sessile or on short denticles, and with sympodial proliferation. The colonies are yellowish to yellowish-cream, mucoid, smooth shiny, pale and with the margin entire.
Kenzo Yokozeki - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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galacto oligosaccharide production from lactose by Sirobasidium magnum cbs6803
Letters in Applied Microbiology, 1996Co-Authors: Norimasa Onishi, I. Kira, Kenzo YokozekiAbstract:N. ONISHI, I. KIRA AND K. YOKOZEKI. 1996. Galacto-oligosaccharide (Gal-OS) was produced from lactose by a yeast, Sirobasidium magnum CBS6803. With toluene-treated resting cells, 136 mg ml−1 of Gal-OS was produced from 360 mg ml−1 of lactose at 50°C for 42 h. Then, the yield of Gal-OS was increased by a culture method in which cell growth followed the enzymatic reaction : 224 mg ml−1 of Gal-OS was produced at 30°C for 60 h. Finally, combination of the toluene-treated resting cells and glucose oxidase plus catalase was applied to improve productivity by the removal of a by-product, glucose, which inhibits the Gal-OS production, from the reaction mixture. In this case, 242 mg ml−1 4-galactosyl-lactose. of Gal-OS was produced at 50°C for 42 h without cell growth. The structure of the major product ws identified as 4-galactosyl-laetos.
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Galacto‐oligosaccharide production from lactose by Sirobasidium magnum CBS6803
Letters in applied microbiology, 1996Co-Authors: Norimasa Onishi, I. Kira, Kenzo YokozekiAbstract:N. ONISHI, I. KIRA AND K. YOKOZEKI. 1996. Galacto-oligosaccharide (Gal-OS) was produced from lactose by a yeast, Sirobasidium magnum CBS6803. With toluene-treated resting cells, 136 mg ml−1 of Gal-OS was produced from 360 mg ml−1 of lactose at 50°C for 42 h. Then, the yield of Gal-OS was increased by a culture method in which cell growth followed the enzymatic reaction : 224 mg ml−1 of Gal-OS was produced at 30°C for 60 h. Finally, combination of the toluene-treated resting cells and glucose oxidase plus catalase was applied to improve productivity by the removal of a by-product, glucose, which inhibits the Gal-OS production, from the reaction mixture. In this case, 242 mg ml−1 4-galactosyl-lactose. of Gal-OS was produced at 50°C for 42 h without cell growth. The structure of the major product ws identified as 4-galactosyl-laetos.
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Gluco-oligosaccharide and galacto-oligosaccharide production by Rhodotorula minuta IFO879
Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, 1996Co-Authors: Norimasa Onishi, Kenzo YokozekiAbstract:Abstract Three strains of yeast, Sterigmatomyces elviae CBS8119, Rhodotorula minuta IFO879 and Sirobasidium magnum CBS6803, which are known to produce galacto-oligosaccharide (Gal-OS) from lactose, were found to process strong transglucosylation abilities and to produce gluco-oligosaccharide (Glc-OS) from cellobiose. Among them, R. minuta IFO 879 was selected as the best producer of Glc-OS. Efficient production conditions for Glc-OS from cellobiose and Gal-OS from lactose were investigated. Using toluene-treated resting cells of R. minuta IFO879, the maximal amounts of Glc-OS produced from 200 mg/ml cellobiose and of Gal-OS produced from 200 mg/ml lactose were 70 mg/ml (a yield by wieght of 35%) and 76 mg/ml (a yield by weight of 38%), respectively. Since the by-product glucose was found to inhibit oligosaccharide production, it was removed from the reaction mixture by devising a suitable culture method such that the enzymatic reaction was accompanied by cell growth to consume the glucose. Under these conditions, the productivities were markedly improved: 201 mg/ml of Glc-OS was produced from 400 mg/ml cellobiose (a yield by weight of 51%) and 230 mg/ml of Gal-OS from 360 mg/ml of lactose (a yield by wieght of 64%). The structures of the major components of Glc-OS and Gal-OS obtained by this method were identified as cellotriose and O -β- d -galactopyranosyl-(1→4)- O -β- d -galactopyranosyl-(1→4)- d -glucopyranose (4′-galactosyl-lactose), respectively.
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Production of Galacto-Oligosaccharide from Lactose by Sterigmatomyces elviae CBS8119.
Applied and environmental microbiology, 1995Co-Authors: Norimasa Onishi, A Yamashiro, Kenzo YokozekiAbstract:Our stock cultures were screened for microorganisms that can produce galacto-oligosaccharide (Gal-OS) from lactose. Of the 574 strains of bacteria and yeasts tested, Sterigmatomyces elviae CBS8119, Rhodotorula minuta IFO879, and Sirobasidium magnum CBS6803 were found to be efficient producers of Gal-OS from lactose and S. elviae CBS8119 was selected as a representative, high-level producing strain. With toluene-treated resting S. elviae CBS8119 cells, 135 mg of Gal-OS per ml was produced from 360-mg/ml lactose. During this reaction, the by-product glucose was found to inhibit Gal-OS production. Therefore, in order to remove the glucose from the reaction mixture, a culture method in which cell growth followed the enzymatic reaction was devised, which increased the yield of Gal-OS considerably because of the consumption of glucose for cell growth. Under such conditions, 232 mg of Gal-OS per ml was produced from 360-mg/ml lactose after incubation at 30 degrees for 60 h. The structure of the major product was identified as O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-->4)-O-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-->4)-D- glucopyranose (4'-galactosyl-lactose) by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.