Irregular Word

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Willy Serniclaes - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Remediation of Allophonic Perception and Visual Attention Span in Developmental Dyslexia: A Joint Assay.
    Frontiers in psychology, 2019
    Co-Authors: Rachel Zoubrinetzky, Sylviane Valdois, Gregory Collet, Marie Ange Nguyen-morel, Willy Serniclaes
    Abstract:

    Categorical perception of phonemes and visual attention span are cognitive processes that contribute independently to poor reading skills in developmental dyslexia. We here explored whether training programs specifically targeting one or the other process do improve reading performance in dyslexic children. The dyslexic participants were trained using either the RapDys© program designed to improve phonemic perception or the MAEVA© program targeting visual attention span. Each participant was provided the two programs successively for intensive training. Results show specific effects of RapDys© on phonemic discrimination and pseudo-Word reading. MAEVA© specifically improved visual attention span and Irregular Word reading. Phonemic awareness and regular Word reading improved after application of both training programs, suggesting similar positive effects of both methods although effects of concomitant phonic training cannot be ruled out (as there was no control group). The overall findings suggest that both categorical perception and visual attention span remediation contribute to reading.

  • development of phonological and orthographic processing in reading aloud in silent reading and in spelling a four year longitudinal study
    Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 2003
    Co-Authors: Liliane Sprengercharolles, Willy Serniclaes, Linda S Siegel, Danielle Bechennec
    Abstract:

    The development of phonological and orthographic processing was studied from the middle of Grade 1 to the end of Grade 4 (age 6; 6-10 years) using the effects of regularity and of lexicality in reading aloud and in spelling tasks, and using the effect of pseudohomophony in a silent reading task. In all the tasks, signs of reliance on phonological processing were found even when indicators of reliance on orthographic processing appeared. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine which early skills predict later reading achievement. PseudoWord and Irregular Word scores were used as measures for phonological and orthographic skills, respectively. Only middle of Grade 1 phonological reading skills accounted for independent variance in end of Grade 4 orthographic skills. Conversely, from the middle to the end of Grade 1, and from the end of Grade 1 to the end of Grade 4, both orthographic and phonological skills accounted for independent variance in later orthographic skills. In the prediction of phonological skills, only the unique contribution of earlier phonological skills was significant. Thus, phonological and orthographic processing appear to be reciprocally related, rather than independent components of written Word recognition. However, very early reliance on the phonological procedure seems to be the bootstrapping mechanism for reading acquisition.

Anne Castles - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • A Computational Model of the Self-Teaching Hypothesis Based on the Dual-Route Cascaded Model of Reading.
    Cognitive science, 2018
    Co-Authors: Stephen C. Pritchard, Max Coltheart, Eva Marinus, Anne Castles
    Abstract:

    The self-teaching hypothesis describes how children progress toward skilled sight-Word reading. It proposes that children do this via phonological recoding with assistance from contextual cues, to identify the target pronunciation for a novel letter string, and in so doing create an opportunity to self-teach new orthographic knowledge. We present a new computational implementation of self-teaching within the dual-route cascaded (DRC) model of reading aloud, and we explore how decoding and contextual cues can work together to enable accurate self-teaching under a variety of circumstances. The new model (ST-DRC) uses DRC's sublexical route and the interactivity between the lexical and sublexical routes to simulate phonological recoding. Known spoken Words are activated in response to novel printed Words, triggering an opportunity for orthographic learning, which is the basis for skilled sight-Word reading. ST-DRC also includes new computational mechanisms for simulating how contextual information aids Word identification, and it demonstrates how partial decoding and ambiguous context interact to achieve Irregular-Word learning. Beyond modeling orthographic learning and self-teaching, ST-DRC's performance suggests new avenues for empirical research on how difficult Word classes such as homographs and potentiophones are learned.

  • Variations within a subtype: Developmental surface dyslexias in English.
    Cortex, 2018
    Co-Authors: Saskia Kohnen, Max Coltheart, Lyndsey Nickels, Leonie Geigis, Genevieve Mcarthur, Anne Castles
    Abstract:

    Abstract Surface dyslexia is characterised by poor reading of Irregular Words while nonWord reading can be completely normal. Previous work has identified several theoretical possibilities for the underlying locus of impairment in surface dyslexia. In this study, we systematically investigated whether children with surface dyslexia showed different patterns of reading performance that could be traced back to different underlying levels of impairment. To do this, we tested 12 English readers, replicating previous work in Hebrew (Gvion & Friedmann, 2013; 2016; Friedmann & Lukov, 2008; Friedmann & Gvion, 2016). In our sample, we found that poor Irregular Word reading was associated with deficits at the level of the orthographic input lexicon and with impaired access to meaning and spoken Word forms after processing written Words in the orthographic input lexicon. There were also children whose surface dyslexia seemed to be caused by impairments of the phonological output lexicon. We suggest that further evidence is required to unequivocally support a fourth pattern where the link between orthography and meaning is intact while the link between orthography and spoken Word forms is not functioning. All patterns found were consistent with dual route theory while possible patterns of results, which would be inconsistent with dual route theory, were not detected.

  • Word and pseudoWord superiority effects on letter position processing in developing and skilled readers.
    Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance, 2016
    Co-Authors: Yvette Kezilas, Saskia Kohnen, Meredith Mckague, Serje Robidoux, Anne Castles
    Abstract:

    Studies have shown that letter position processing changes as reading develops. Whether these changes are driven by the development of the orthographic lexicon is currently unclear. In this study, we administered a novel variant of the Reicher-Wheeler task to children aged 7-12 years (Experiment 1) and adults (Experiment 2) to clarify the role of the developing lexicon in letter position processing. The task required participants to report the identity of a letter at a specified position within 3 orthographic contexts: anagram Words (e.g., slime - which has the anagram partner, smile), pseudoWords (e.g., blire - brile), and illegal nonWords (e.g., bfgsv - bsgfv). The influence of a reader's whole-Word orthographic representations was investigated by comparing the performance of Words to pseudoWords (Word superiority effect or WSE), and the influence of their knowledge of orthotactic constraints was investigated by comparing pseudoWords to illegal nonWords (pseudoWord superiority effect or PSE). While the PSE increased with developing orthographic skills (as indexed by Irregular Word reading) in primary schoolchildren, the WSE emerged only in adult readers. Furthermore, the size of the WSE increased with orthographic skill in adults. The findings are discussed in regards to current models and theories of visual Word recognition and reading development. (PsycINFO Database Record

  • Sight Word and Phonics Training in Children With Dyslexia
    Journal of learning disabilities, 2013
    Co-Authors: Genevieve Mcarthur, Saskia Kohnen, Anne Castles, Linda Larsen, Kristy Jones, Thushara Anandakumar, Erin Banales
    Abstract:

    The aims of this study were to (a) compare sight Word training and phonics training in children with dyslexia, and (b) determine if different orders of sight Word and phonics training have different effects on the reading skills of children with dyslexia. One group of children (n = 36) did 8 weeks of phonics training (reading via grapheme–phoneme correspondence rules) and then 8 weeks of sight Word training (reading Irregular Words as a whole), one group did the reverse (n = 36), and one group did phonics and sight Word training simultaneously for two 8-week periods (n = 32). We measured the effects of phonics and sight Word training on sight Word reading (trained Irregular Word reading accuracy, untrained Irregular Word reading accuracy), phonics reading (nonWord reading accuracy, nonWord reading fluency), and general reading (Word reading fluency, reading comprehension). Sight Word training led to significant gains in sight Word reading measures that were larger than gains made from phonics training, ph...

  • Getting to grips with the heterogeneity of developmental dyslexia.
    Cognitive neuropsychology, 2013
    Co-Authors: Genevieve Mcarthur, Saskia Kohnen, Linda Larsen, Kristy Jones, Thushara Anandakumar, Erin Banales, Anne Castles
    Abstract:

    The aim of this study was to better understand the heterogeneity of developmental dyslexia by identifying the most common deficits in the reading systems of children with dyslexia with different poor Word reading profiles. We classified the Word reading profiles of 138 children with developmental dyslexia using nonWord and Irregular-Word reading tests and then used independent experimental tests to explore the cognitive deficits within their Word reading systems. The most common deficit associated with primary sublexical impairment (i.e., poor nonWord reading) was poor grapheme–phoneme conversion (GPC) knowledge. The most common deficits associated with primary lexical impairment (i.e., poor Irregular-Word reading) were an impaired orthographic lexicon plus impaired links between this lexicon and the phonological lexicon and semantic knowledge. Finally, the most common deficits associated with mixed reading impairment (i.e., poor nonWord reading and poor Irregular-Word reading) were poor GPC knowledge, an...

Lyndsey Nickels - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Variations within a subtype: Developmental surface dyslexias in English.
    Cortex, 2018
    Co-Authors: Saskia Kohnen, Max Coltheart, Lyndsey Nickels, Leonie Geigis, Genevieve Mcarthur, Anne Castles
    Abstract:

    Abstract Surface dyslexia is characterised by poor reading of Irregular Words while nonWord reading can be completely normal. Previous work has identified several theoretical possibilities for the underlying locus of impairment in surface dyslexia. In this study, we systematically investigated whether children with surface dyslexia showed different patterns of reading performance that could be traced back to different underlying levels of impairment. To do this, we tested 12 English readers, replicating previous work in Hebrew (Gvion & Friedmann, 2013; 2016; Friedmann & Lukov, 2008; Friedmann & Gvion, 2016). In our sample, we found that poor Irregular Word reading was associated with deficits at the level of the orthographic input lexicon and with impaired access to meaning and spoken Word forms after processing written Words in the orthographic input lexicon. There were also children whose surface dyslexia seemed to be caused by impairments of the phonological output lexicon. We suggest that further evidence is required to unequivocally support a fourth pattern where the link between orthography and meaning is intact while the link between orthography and spoken Word forms is not functioning. All patterns found were consistent with dual route theory while possible patterns of results, which would be inconsistent with dual route theory, were not detected.

  • Individual differences in the vocabulary skills of children with poor reading comprehension
    Learning and Individual Differences, 2016
    Co-Authors: Danielle C Colenbrander, Saskia Kohnen, Karen M. Smith-lock, Lyndsey Nickels
    Abstract:

    Abstract As a group, poor comprehenders (children who have poor reading comprehension despite age-appropriate decoding abilities) have often been shown to have vocabulary difficulties. However, vocabulary knowledge is complex and could affect reading comprehension in more than one way. We explored this complexity by assessing the vocabulary and oral language skills of poor comprehenders at the individual level. All poor comprehenders displayed some degree of oral language deficit in the context of intact nonWord and Irregular Word reading skills, but patterns of oral language deficit differed across participants. The majority had weak vocabulary skills which took the form of semantic weaknesses, while a minority had age-appropriate vocabulary skills but poor syntactic or listening comprehension skills. Our results support the Simple View of Reading and demonstrate the importance of considering individual variation when developing theories of, and treatments for, poor reading comprehension.

  • Predicting generalization in the training of Irregular-Word spelling: Treating lexical spelling deficits in a child
    Cognitive neuropsychology, 2008
    Co-Authors: Saskia Kohnen, Max Coltheart, Lyndsey Nickels, Ruth Brunsdon
    Abstract:

    This paper presents a single case study investigating the mechanisms underlying generalization of treatment benefits to untrained Words in spelling. Brunsdon, Coltheart, and Nickels (2005) observed that untreated Words that improved tended to be those whose errors were closest to being correct prior to treatment. These Words also tended to be high in written frequency. The present study employed the same treatment techniques as those used by Brunsdon et al. with K.M., a developmental surface dysgraphic. During a first treatment the characteristics of Words whose spelling improved without specific training were identified. These characteristics were then used in a second treatment to test whether it was possible to predict generalization. The results showed that treatment generalization to untreated Irregular Words was best predicted by neighbourhood size and frequency. We suggest that the processes underlying treatment generalization are based on the interaction between the orthographic lexicon and the graphemic buffer. Clinical implications are discussed.

  • Treatment of Irregular Word spelling in acquired dysgraphia: selective benefit from visual mnemonics.
    Neuropsychological rehabilitation, 2006
    Co-Authors: Laura Schmalzl, Lyndsey Nickels
    Abstract:

    In contrast to the numerous treatment studies of spoken language deficits, there have been relatively few studies concerned with the treatment of spelling disorders. Among these, there have been only a small number that have targeted specific components of the spelling process. We describe a successful single case treatment study for FME, a woman with acquired dysgraphia, which was conducted within a cognitive neuropsychological framework. Pre-treatment assessment revealed a semantic deficit, impaired access to output orthography and probable additional degradation of the actual representations within the orthographic output lexicon. The treatment study was therefore directed towards relearning spellings by strengthening, and facilitating access to, specific orthographic representations for writing. In order to maximise the functional outcome for FME, treatment was focused on high frequency, Irregular Words. The treatment programme was carried out in two phases, one without and one with the use of mnemonics, and the results showed a selective training effect with the mnemonics alone. Treatment benefits were item specific but long lasting, and a significant improvement in FME's spelling performance was still evident at 2 months post-treatment. The current study confirms how cognitive neuropsychological theories and methods can be successfully applied to the assessment of acquired spelling impairments, and exemplifies how treatment with carefully designed mnemonics is of benefit if the inability to retrieve orthographic representations for writing is aggravated by a semantic deficit.

  • Treatment of Irregular Word spelling in developmental surface dysgraphia
    Cognitive neuropsychology, 2005
    Co-Authors: Ruth Brunsdon, Max Coltheart, Lyndsey Nickels
    Abstract:

    An increasing number of cognitive neuropsychological treatment studies of acquired dysgraphia have been published in recent years, but to our knowledge there are no corresponding studies of developmental dysgraphia. This paper reports a cognitive neuropsychological treatment programme designed for a child with developmental surface dysgraphia. The treatment aim was to improve functioning of the orthographic output lexicon, and so treatment methods targeted Irregular Word spelling. Treatment methods were based on previous successful treatments employed in cases of adult acquired surface dysgraphia (Behrmann, 1987; De Partz, Seron, & Van der Linden, 1992; Weekes & Coltheart, 1996). Results showed a significant treatment effect for both spelling and reading of Irregular Words that was largely stable over time and that generalised partially to spelling of untreated Irregular Words. Homophone Words were not treated but some aspects of homophone reading and spelling also improved, though homophone confusion errors remained. Comparison of treatment effectiveness with and without mnemonics suggested that the mnemonic cue itself was not necessary to achieve treatment success for Irregular Word spelling. Analyses revealed that untreated Irregular Words whose spellings became correct as a result of treatment generalisation were those whose original misspellings were closest to being correct prior to treatment. Results also provided preliminary evidence that the mechanism underlying treatment generalisation involved improved access to orthographic representations, resulting in an increased tendency to employ orthography for spelling attempts and reduced reliance on phoneme to grapheme conversion.

Sylviane Valdois - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Visual attention modulates reading acquisition.
    Vision research, 2019
    Co-Authors: Sylviane Valdois, Jean-luc Roulin, Marie-line Bosse
    Abstract:

    The processing of letters within strings is challenging for beginning readers. Letter identification is affected by visual similarity, loss of information with eccentricity and interference from nearby letters. In contrast, visual attention enhances letter identification. We here explored whether visual attention resources for multi-element processing, as measured through tasks of visual attention span prior to literacy instruction, predicted reading fluency performance one year later. One hundred and twenty-four mainstream children were assessed in kindergarten on their visual attention span abilities, phonological awareness, letter-name knowledge, early literacy knowledge, verbal short-term memory and non-verbal IQ. The participants' reading performance was measured at the end of grade 1 using tasks of Irregular Word, pseudo-Word and text reading. Results from regression analyses showed that kindergarteners' VA span predicted reading fluency for text, Irregular Words and pseudo-Words one year later, after controlling for age, non-verbal IQ, phonological skills, letter name knowledge and early literacy skills. Path analyses carried out to estimate the differential contribution of VA span to the different reading skills revealed a stronger contribution for pseudo-Word reading than Irregular Word or text reading at the end of Grade 1. These results suggest that pre-reading visual attention resources contribute to later reading fluency, whatever the reading subskills and whatever the reading context (Words in isolation or in sentences), with higher involvement to pseudo-Word reading. We propose a new conceptual model of the role of visual attention in reading acquisition and argue that many aspects of the models are already supported by available findings.

  • Remediation of Allophonic Perception and Visual Attention Span in Developmental Dyslexia: A Joint Assay.
    Frontiers in psychology, 2019
    Co-Authors: Rachel Zoubrinetzky, Sylviane Valdois, Gregory Collet, Marie Ange Nguyen-morel, Willy Serniclaes
    Abstract:

    Categorical perception of phonemes and visual attention span are cognitive processes that contribute independently to poor reading skills in developmental dyslexia. We here explored whether training programs specifically targeting one or the other process do improve reading performance in dyslexic children. The dyslexic participants were trained using either the RapDys© program designed to improve phonemic perception or the MAEVA© program targeting visual attention span. Each participant was provided the two programs successively for intensive training. Results show specific effects of RapDys© on phonemic discrimination and pseudo-Word reading. MAEVA© specifically improved visual attention span and Irregular Word reading. Phonemic awareness and regular Word reading improved after application of both training programs, suggesting similar positive effects of both methods although effects of concomitant phonic training cannot be ruled out (as there was no control group). The overall findings suggest that both categorical perception and visual attention span remediation contribute to reading.

  • New insights on developmental dyslexia subtypes: heterogeneity of mixed reading profiles.
    PloS one, 2014
    Co-Authors: Frédérique Bielle, Rachel Zoubrinetzky, Sylviane Valdois
    Abstract:

    We examined whether classifications based on reading performance are relevant to identify cognitively homogeneous subgroups of dyslexic children. Each of the 71 dyslexic participants was selected to have a mixed reading profile, i.e. poor Irregular Word and pseudo-Word reading performance (accuracy and speed). Despite their homogeneous reading profile, the participants were found to split into four distinct cognitive subgroups, characterized by a single phonological disorder, a single visual attention span disorder, a double deficit or none of these disorders. The two subgroups characterized by single and contrasted cognitive disorders were found to exhibit a very similar reading pattern but more contrasted spelling performance (quantitative analysis). A qualitative analysis of the error types produced in reading and spelling provided some cues about the participants' underlying cognitive deficit. The overall findings disqualify subtyping based on reading profiles as a classification method to identify cognitively homogeneous subgroups of dyslexic children. They rather show an opaque relationship between the cognitive underpinnings of developmental dyslexia and their behavioral manifestations in reading and spelling. Future neuroimaging and genetic studies should take this issue into account since synthesizing over cognitively heterogeneous children would entail potential pitfalls.

  • A connectionist multiple-trace memory model for polysyllabic Word reading.
    Psychological review, 1998
    Co-Authors: Bernard Ans, Serge Carbonnel, Sylviane Valdois
    Abstract:

    A connectionist feedforward network implementing a mapping from orthography to phonology is described. The model develops a view of the reading system that accounts for both Irregular Word and pseudoWord reading without relying on any system of explicit or implicit conversion rules. The model assumes, however, that reading is supported by 2 procedures that work successively: a global procedure using knowledge about entire Words and an analytic procedure based on the activation of Word syllabic segments. The model provides an account of the basic effects that characterize human skilled reading performance including a frequency by consistency interaction and a position-of-Irregularity effect. Furthermore, early in training, the network shows a performance similar to that of less skilled readers. It also offers a plausible account of the patterns of acquired phonological and surface dyslexia when lesioned in different ways.

Saskia Kohnen - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.

  • Variations within a subtype: Developmental surface dyslexias in English.
    Cortex, 2018
    Co-Authors: Saskia Kohnen, Max Coltheart, Lyndsey Nickels, Leonie Geigis, Genevieve Mcarthur, Anne Castles
    Abstract:

    Abstract Surface dyslexia is characterised by poor reading of Irregular Words while nonWord reading can be completely normal. Previous work has identified several theoretical possibilities for the underlying locus of impairment in surface dyslexia. In this study, we systematically investigated whether children with surface dyslexia showed different patterns of reading performance that could be traced back to different underlying levels of impairment. To do this, we tested 12 English readers, replicating previous work in Hebrew (Gvion & Friedmann, 2013; 2016; Friedmann & Lukov, 2008; Friedmann & Gvion, 2016). In our sample, we found that poor Irregular Word reading was associated with deficits at the level of the orthographic input lexicon and with impaired access to meaning and spoken Word forms after processing written Words in the orthographic input lexicon. There were also children whose surface dyslexia seemed to be caused by impairments of the phonological output lexicon. We suggest that further evidence is required to unequivocally support a fourth pattern where the link between orthography and meaning is intact while the link between orthography and spoken Word forms is not functioning. All patterns found were consistent with dual route theory while possible patterns of results, which would be inconsistent with dual route theory, were not detected.

  • Word and pseudoWord superiority effects on letter position processing in developing and skilled readers.
    Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance, 2016
    Co-Authors: Yvette Kezilas, Saskia Kohnen, Meredith Mckague, Serje Robidoux, Anne Castles
    Abstract:

    Studies have shown that letter position processing changes as reading develops. Whether these changes are driven by the development of the orthographic lexicon is currently unclear. In this study, we administered a novel variant of the Reicher-Wheeler task to children aged 7-12 years (Experiment 1) and adults (Experiment 2) to clarify the role of the developing lexicon in letter position processing. The task required participants to report the identity of a letter at a specified position within 3 orthographic contexts: anagram Words (e.g., slime - which has the anagram partner, smile), pseudoWords (e.g., blire - brile), and illegal nonWords (e.g., bfgsv - bsgfv). The influence of a reader's whole-Word orthographic representations was investigated by comparing the performance of Words to pseudoWords (Word superiority effect or WSE), and the influence of their knowledge of orthotactic constraints was investigated by comparing pseudoWords to illegal nonWords (pseudoWord superiority effect or PSE). While the PSE increased with developing orthographic skills (as indexed by Irregular Word reading) in primary schoolchildren, the WSE emerged only in adult readers. Furthermore, the size of the WSE increased with orthographic skill in adults. The findings are discussed in regards to current models and theories of visual Word recognition and reading development. (PsycINFO Database Record

  • Individual differences in the vocabulary skills of children with poor reading comprehension
    Learning and Individual Differences, 2016
    Co-Authors: Danielle C Colenbrander, Saskia Kohnen, Karen M. Smith-lock, Lyndsey Nickels
    Abstract:

    Abstract As a group, poor comprehenders (children who have poor reading comprehension despite age-appropriate decoding abilities) have often been shown to have vocabulary difficulties. However, vocabulary knowledge is complex and could affect reading comprehension in more than one way. We explored this complexity by assessing the vocabulary and oral language skills of poor comprehenders at the individual level. All poor comprehenders displayed some degree of oral language deficit in the context of intact nonWord and Irregular Word reading skills, but patterns of oral language deficit differed across participants. The majority had weak vocabulary skills which took the form of semantic weaknesses, while a minority had age-appropriate vocabulary skills but poor syntactic or listening comprehension skills. Our results support the Simple View of Reading and demonstrate the importance of considering individual variation when developing theories of, and treatments for, poor reading comprehension.

  • Sight Word and Phonics Training in Children With Dyslexia
    Journal of learning disabilities, 2013
    Co-Authors: Genevieve Mcarthur, Saskia Kohnen, Anne Castles, Linda Larsen, Kristy Jones, Thushara Anandakumar, Erin Banales
    Abstract:

    The aims of this study were to (a) compare sight Word training and phonics training in children with dyslexia, and (b) determine if different orders of sight Word and phonics training have different effects on the reading skills of children with dyslexia. One group of children (n = 36) did 8 weeks of phonics training (reading via grapheme–phoneme correspondence rules) and then 8 weeks of sight Word training (reading Irregular Words as a whole), one group did the reverse (n = 36), and one group did phonics and sight Word training simultaneously for two 8-week periods (n = 32). We measured the effects of phonics and sight Word training on sight Word reading (trained Irregular Word reading accuracy, untrained Irregular Word reading accuracy), phonics reading (nonWord reading accuracy, nonWord reading fluency), and general reading (Word reading fluency, reading comprehension). Sight Word training led to significant gains in sight Word reading measures that were larger than gains made from phonics training, ph...

  • Getting to grips with the heterogeneity of developmental dyslexia.
    Cognitive neuropsychology, 2013
    Co-Authors: Genevieve Mcarthur, Saskia Kohnen, Linda Larsen, Kristy Jones, Thushara Anandakumar, Erin Banales, Anne Castles
    Abstract:

    The aim of this study was to better understand the heterogeneity of developmental dyslexia by identifying the most common deficits in the reading systems of children with dyslexia with different poor Word reading profiles. We classified the Word reading profiles of 138 children with developmental dyslexia using nonWord and Irregular-Word reading tests and then used independent experimental tests to explore the cognitive deficits within their Word reading systems. The most common deficit associated with primary sublexical impairment (i.e., poor nonWord reading) was poor grapheme–phoneme conversion (GPC) knowledge. The most common deficits associated with primary lexical impairment (i.e., poor Irregular-Word reading) were an impaired orthographic lexicon plus impaired links between this lexicon and the phonological lexicon and semantic knowledge. Finally, the most common deficits associated with mixed reading impairment (i.e., poor nonWord reading and poor Irregular-Word reading) were poor GPC knowledge, an...