The Experts below are selected from a list of 318 Experts worldwide ranked by ideXlab platform
Frank P. Cuozzo - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
sources of tooth wear variation early in life among known aged wild ring tailed Lemurs Lemur catta at the beza mahafaly special reserve madagascar
American Journal of Primatology, 2014Co-Authors: Frank P. Cuozzo, Michelle L. Sauther, Brian R Head, Peter S Ungar, Teague M OmaraAbstract:Ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR), Madagascar display a high frequency of individuals with notable and sometimes extreme tooth wear. Adult Lemurs display a range of tooth wear even among individuals of the same age, but we do not know at what age this variation first appears. This study's goal was to determine whether wear variation occurs in younger wild Lemurs. Based on the decade-long study of ring-tailed Lemur feeding and dental ecology at BMSR, we hypothesized that younger, natal Lemurs (under 5 years of age), would display variation in their degree of tooth wear that would correspond to microhabitat differences, given differences in food availability in different troops' home ranges. We also hypothesized that wear would differ between sexes at this young age, given differences in feeding between males and females in this population. Hypotheses were tested using dental topographic analyses using dental impressions collected from known-aged Lemurs across 10 years at BMSR. Results illustrate significant differences in wear-related tooth topography (i.e., relief and slope, presented here as "occlusal lift") for microhabitat, sex and troop affiliation among Lemurs under 5 years of age in this population. Although, all Lemurs in this population consume mechanically challenging tamarind fruit, those in more disturbed habitats eat additional introduced foods, some of which are also mechanically challenging. Thus, dietary variation is the likely cause of variation in tooth wear. The wear variation we show at a young age suggests caution when assigning age based on tooth wear in living and fossil primates. These wear-related tooth shape changes early in life, which reflects sex, habitat variation and levels of anthropogenic disturbance, may potentially impact reproductive fitness later in life.
-
The Dental Ecology of Ring-Tailed Lemurs ( Lemur catta )
Leaping Ahead, 2012Co-Authors: Frank P. Cuozzo, Michelle L. SautherAbstract:Ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) are among the best-known primates. Long-term study of their behavior, ecology and dentition at a single locality, the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar, has enabled a detailed understanding of their dental ecology. Patterns of dental pathology including tooth wear, tooth loss and abscessed canines correspond to use of specific resources and habitats and differ from patterns seen in sympatric primate species. Regular use of tamarind fruit (Tamarindus indicus) likely leads to a distinct pattern of severe tooth wear and tooth loss, suggesting a “mismatch” between dental morphology and the animals’ primary fallback food.
-
field anesthesia of wild ring tailed Lemurs Lemur catta using tiletamine zolazepam medetomidine and butorphanol
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2011Co-Authors: Scott R Larsen, Anneke Moresco, Michelle L. Sauther, Frank P. CuozzoAbstract:Abstract Telazol® has been commonly used for field anesthesia of wild Lemurs, including ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta). Telazol alone provides good induction, but doesn't cause adequate muscle relaxation and sedation for collecting consistent somatic measurements and high-quality dental impressions that are sometimes needed. Variability in induction response has been seen between individuals that have received similar dosages, with young Lemurs seeming to need more anesthetic than mature Lemurs. This investigation evaluated Telazol induction in young (2.0–4.9 yr) and mature (≥5.0 yr) ring-tailed Lemurs and compared postinduction supplementation with medetomidine or medetomidine–butorphanol. Forty-eight Lemurs were anesthetized with Telazol administered via blow dart; then, 20 min after darting, they were supplemented via hand injection with either medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg) or medetomidine–butorphanol (0.04 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively). The odds ratio for young Lemurs to need more than one dart for...
-
Evaluation of Modified Techniques for Immobilization of Wild Ring-Tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta)
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2011Co-Authors: R. Scott Larsen, Michelle L. Sauther, Frank P. CuozzoAbstract:Abstract: Wild ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) can be anesthetized with Telazol via blow dart, but improved techniques are needed so that each Lemur is reliably induced with a single dart. Medetomidine-butorphanol (MB) is a good supplemental protocol to be administered once the Lemurs are captured, but other protocols may provide longer periods of sedation and immobility. One possible way of increasing the efficacy of each dart is to increase the time it is retained in the leg. In this investigation, a “double-sleeve” technique was used to try to increase the time of dart retention. This technique used a standard silicone sleeve on the needle, along with a second sleeve at the needle hub. Induction values were compared between Lemurs darted with double-sleeve needles and those induced with needles that each had a single silicone sleeve. Once the Lemurs were induced, supplementation with MB (0.04 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg) was compared with supplementation with ketamine-medetomidine (KM) (10 mg/kg and 0.04 mg/k...
-
Field Anesthesia of Wild Ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) Using Tiletamine–Zolazepam, Medetomidine, and Butorphanol
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2011Co-Authors: R. Scott Larsen, Anneke Moresco, Michelle L. Sauther, Frank P. CuozzoAbstract:Abstract Telazol® has been commonly used for field anesthesia of wild Lemurs, including ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta). Telazol alone provides good induction, but doesn't cause adequate muscle relaxation and sedation for collecting consistent somatic measurements and high-quality dental impressions that are sometimes needed. Variability in induction response has been seen between individuals that have received similar dosages, with young Lemurs seeming to need more anesthetic than mature Lemurs. This investigation evaluated Telazol induction in young (2.0–4.9 yr) and mature (≥5.0 yr) ring-tailed Lemurs and compared postinduction supplementation with medetomidine or medetomidine–butorphanol. Forty-eight Lemurs were anesthetized with Telazol administered via blow dart; then, 20 min after darting, they were supplemented via hand injection with either medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg) or medetomidine–butorphanol (0.04 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively). The odds ratio for young Lemurs to need more than one dart for...
Teague M Omara - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
sources of tooth wear variation early in life among known aged wild ring tailed Lemurs Lemur catta at the beza mahafaly special reserve madagascar
American Journal of Primatology, 2014Co-Authors: Frank P. Cuozzo, Michelle L. Sauther, Brian R Head, Peter S Ungar, Teague M OmaraAbstract:Ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR), Madagascar display a high frequency of individuals with notable and sometimes extreme tooth wear. Adult Lemurs display a range of tooth wear even among individuals of the same age, but we do not know at what age this variation first appears. This study's goal was to determine whether wear variation occurs in younger wild Lemurs. Based on the decade-long study of ring-tailed Lemur feeding and dental ecology at BMSR, we hypothesized that younger, natal Lemurs (under 5 years of age), would display variation in their degree of tooth wear that would correspond to microhabitat differences, given differences in food availability in different troops' home ranges. We also hypothesized that wear would differ between sexes at this young age, given differences in feeding between males and females in this population. Hypotheses were tested using dental topographic analyses using dental impressions collected from known-aged Lemurs across 10 years at BMSR. Results illustrate significant differences in wear-related tooth topography (i.e., relief and slope, presented here as "occlusal lift") for microhabitat, sex and troop affiliation among Lemurs under 5 years of age in this population. Although, all Lemurs in this population consume mechanically challenging tamarind fruit, those in more disturbed habitats eat additional introduced foods, some of which are also mechanically challenging. Thus, dietary variation is the likely cause of variation in tooth wear. The wear variation we show at a young age suggests caution when assigning age based on tooth wear in living and fossil primates. These wear-related tooth shape changes early in life, which reflects sex, habitat variation and levels of anthropogenic disturbance, may potentially impact reproductive fitness later in life.
Michelle L. Sauther - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
Restating the Case for a Sharp Population Decline in Lemur catta.
Folia Primatologica, 2018Co-Authors: Marni Lafleur, Lisa Gould, Tara A. Clarke, Michelle L. Sauther, Kim E. ReuterAbstract:As with many other species in the primate order, ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) are threatened with extinction. Our articles documented declines in wild ring-tailed Lemur populations and noted that fewer than 2,500 wild ring-tailed Lemurs are known to persist in 32 [Gould and Sauther: Primate Conservation 2016; 30: 89-101] and 34 [LaFleur et al.: Folia Primatologica 2017; 87: 320-330] sites. A criticism of our articles [Murphy et al.: International Journal of Primatology 2017; 38: 623-628] suggested that we have inadequately sampled ring-tailed Lemur populations and habitats, and misused the literature. We disagree, and provide both a detailed rebuttal and responses to specific critique points herein. Moreover, we restate our case outlining a dramatic decline of ring-tailed Lemurs resulting from anthropogenic pressures (deforestation, severe habitat fragmentation, extraction for the pet and bushmeat trades). We pose several thought-provoking questions as to when is the appropriate time for researchers to "sound the alarm" about a species' decline, and remain committed to understanding the drivers of unsustainable exploitation of this emblematic Lemur, and preventing their extinction in the wild.
-
sources of tooth wear variation early in life among known aged wild ring tailed Lemurs Lemur catta at the beza mahafaly special reserve madagascar
American Journal of Primatology, 2014Co-Authors: Frank P. Cuozzo, Michelle L. Sauther, Brian R Head, Peter S Ungar, Teague M OmaraAbstract:Ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR), Madagascar display a high frequency of individuals with notable and sometimes extreme tooth wear. Adult Lemurs display a range of tooth wear even among individuals of the same age, but we do not know at what age this variation first appears. This study's goal was to determine whether wear variation occurs in younger wild Lemurs. Based on the decade-long study of ring-tailed Lemur feeding and dental ecology at BMSR, we hypothesized that younger, natal Lemurs (under 5 years of age), would display variation in their degree of tooth wear that would correspond to microhabitat differences, given differences in food availability in different troops' home ranges. We also hypothesized that wear would differ between sexes at this young age, given differences in feeding between males and females in this population. Hypotheses were tested using dental topographic analyses using dental impressions collected from known-aged Lemurs across 10 years at BMSR. Results illustrate significant differences in wear-related tooth topography (i.e., relief and slope, presented here as "occlusal lift") for microhabitat, sex and troop affiliation among Lemurs under 5 years of age in this population. Although, all Lemurs in this population consume mechanically challenging tamarind fruit, those in more disturbed habitats eat additional introduced foods, some of which are also mechanically challenging. Thus, dietary variation is the likely cause of variation in tooth wear. The wear variation we show at a young age suggests caution when assigning age based on tooth wear in living and fossil primates. These wear-related tooth shape changes early in life, which reflects sex, habitat variation and levels of anthropogenic disturbance, may potentially impact reproductive fitness later in life.
-
The Dental Ecology of Ring-Tailed Lemurs ( Lemur catta )
Leaping Ahead, 2012Co-Authors: Frank P. Cuozzo, Michelle L. SautherAbstract:Ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) are among the best-known primates. Long-term study of their behavior, ecology and dentition at a single locality, the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar, has enabled a detailed understanding of their dental ecology. Patterns of dental pathology including tooth wear, tooth loss and abscessed canines correspond to use of specific resources and habitats and differ from patterns seen in sympatric primate species. Regular use of tamarind fruit (Tamarindus indicus) likely leads to a distinct pattern of severe tooth wear and tooth loss, suggesting a “mismatch” between dental morphology and the animals’ primary fallback food.
-
field anesthesia of wild ring tailed Lemurs Lemur catta using tiletamine zolazepam medetomidine and butorphanol
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2011Co-Authors: Scott R Larsen, Anneke Moresco, Michelle L. Sauther, Frank P. CuozzoAbstract:Abstract Telazol® has been commonly used for field anesthesia of wild Lemurs, including ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta). Telazol alone provides good induction, but doesn't cause adequate muscle relaxation and sedation for collecting consistent somatic measurements and high-quality dental impressions that are sometimes needed. Variability in induction response has been seen between individuals that have received similar dosages, with young Lemurs seeming to need more anesthetic than mature Lemurs. This investigation evaluated Telazol induction in young (2.0–4.9 yr) and mature (≥5.0 yr) ring-tailed Lemurs and compared postinduction supplementation with medetomidine or medetomidine–butorphanol. Forty-eight Lemurs were anesthetized with Telazol administered via blow dart; then, 20 min after darting, they were supplemented via hand injection with either medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg) or medetomidine–butorphanol (0.04 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively). The odds ratio for young Lemurs to need more than one dart for...
-
Evaluation of Modified Techniques for Immobilization of Wild Ring-Tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta)
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2011Co-Authors: R. Scott Larsen, Michelle L. Sauther, Frank P. CuozzoAbstract:Abstract: Wild ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) can be anesthetized with Telazol via blow dart, but improved techniques are needed so that each Lemur is reliably induced with a single dart. Medetomidine-butorphanol (MB) is a good supplemental protocol to be administered once the Lemurs are captured, but other protocols may provide longer periods of sedation and immobility. One possible way of increasing the efficacy of each dart is to increase the time it is retained in the leg. In this investigation, a “double-sleeve” technique was used to try to increase the time of dart retention. This technique used a standard silicone sleeve on the needle, along with a second sleeve at the needle hub. Induction values were compared between Lemurs darted with double-sleeve needles and those induced with needles that each had a single silicone sleeve. Once the Lemurs were induced, supplementation with MB (0.04 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg) was compared with supplementation with ketamine-medetomidine (KM) (10 mg/kg and 0.04 mg/k...
Jonah Ratsimbazafy - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
a national survey of household pet Lemur ownership in madagascar
PLOS ONE, 2019Co-Authors: Kim E. Reuter, Marni Lafleur, Tara A. Clarke, Toby Schaeffer, Jonah Ratsimbazafy, Fabiola Holiniaina Kjeldgaard, Irene Ramanantenasoa, Tiana Ratolojanahary, Lucia Rodriguez, Melissa S SchaeferAbstract:Primates are extracted from the wild for the pet trade across the world. In Madagascar, Lemurs are kept as illegal pets and an understanding of Lemur pet ownership at the national level is lacking. In 2013 and 2016, we undertook a national survey in 11 of Madagascar’s 22 administrative regions (n = 28 towns) with 1,709 households. To our knowledge, this is the first national survey of the household ownership of pet primates in a country where they are endemic. In the 1.5 years prior to being surveyed, 8% ± 4% (towns as replicates) of respondents had seen a captive Lemur while a further 0.7% ± 0.5% of respondents had owned one personally. We estimate that 33,428 ± 24,846 Lemurs were kept in Malagasy households in the six months prior to our survey efforts, with 18,462 ± 12,963 of these pet Lemurs estimated in urban household alone. Rates of Lemur ownership did not differ by province but increased with the human population of a town and with the popularity of the town on Flickr (a proxy indicator for tourism). We found that the visibility of pet Lemur ownership did not differ across the country, but it did increase with the size of the town and popularity with tourists. Areas with visible pet Lemurs were not always the areas with the highest rates of pet Lemur ownership, highlighting that many pet Lemurs are hidden from the general public. Our study highlights the need for conservation programs to consider both the proportion of inhabitants that own pet Lemurs and the total number of Lemurs that are potentially being kept as pets in those towns. We close by noting that for some species, even just a small amount of localized live extraction for pet ownership could be enough to cause localized population extinctions over time. Moreover, an urgent response is needed to combat a recent and alarming rise in illegal exploitation of biodiversity across Madagascar.
-
Lemurs in a dying forest: Factors influencing Lemur diversity and distribution in forest remnants of north-eastern Madagascar
Biological Conservation, 2018Co-Authors: Dominik Schüßler, Ute Radespiel, Jonah Ratsimbazafy, Jasmin Mantilla-contrerasAbstract:Abstract A majority of Madagascar's iconic Lemurs (Primates, Strepsirrhini) is threatened with extinction due to anthropogenic activities like land use change (deforestation) and bushmeat hunting. We used a multivariate approach combining land cover mapping, vegetation/degradation monitoring, the degree of anthropogenic disturbance and the status of forest protection by the local community to model their impact on Lemur diversity, population densities and encounter rates within a rural area of lowland rain forest in north-eastern Madagascar. High mean annual deforestation rates (2.4%) were calculated since 1990, resulting in a landscape of small and isolated forest fragments. A limited number of eight Lemur species belonging to five Lemur families were encountered. Diurnal species were absent, while cathemeral Lemurs avoided human disturbance. Small and nocturnal species were relatively abundant. Overall Lemur diversity was best explained by forest size and a combination of disturbance and hunting. Encounter rates of three nocturnal taxa were influenced by forest size and habitat degradation. Community-level forest protection had no effect on Lemur diversity, but coincided with lower levels of habitat degradation. Lemur population sizes were relatively small and only few forests remain that offer suitable habitats for viable populations. We highly recommend external conservation NGOs to support local forest management by improving the existing community-based approach. Actions should include expansion of protected habitats to increase population connectivity (reforestation) and to decrease Lemur disturbance by villagers. Without external support, the last remaining forest habitats will be devastated within a few years resulting in the local extinction of most Lemur populations.
-
Lemurs of Madagascar : a strategy for their conservation 2013-2016
2013Co-Authors: Nicola Davies, Jonah Ratsimbazafy, Steig E. Johnson, Edward E. Louis, Russell A. Mittermeier, Stephen D. Nash, Serge Rajaobelina, Josia Razafindramanana, Christoph SchwitzerAbstract:Many Lemur species are on the very brink of extinction. Ninety-one per cent of all Lemur taxa (species and subspecies) are now classified as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This publication outlines a three-year strategy for the conservation of the Lemurs of Madagascar. The strategy contains 30 action plans for 30 different priority sites for Lemur conservation.
-
first indications of a highland specialist among mouse Lemurs microcebus spp and evidence for a new mouse Lemur species from eastern madagascar
Primates, 2012Co-Authors: Ute Radespiel, Solofonirina Rasoloharijaona, Jonah Ratsimbazafy, Herimalala Raveloson, Nicole Andriaholinirina, Romule Rakotondravony, Rose Marie Randrianarison, Blanchard RandrianambininaAbstract:The factors that limit the distribution of the highly diverse Lemur fauna of Madagascar are still debated. We visited an understudied region of eastern Madagascar, a lowland rainforest site (Sahafina, 29–230 m a.s.l.) close to the Mantadia National Park, in order to conduct a survey and collect further distributional data on mouse Lemurs. We captured, measured, photographed, and sampled mouse Lemurs from the Sahafina forest, performed standard phylogenetic methods based on three mitochondrial DNA genes, and conducted morphometric comparisons in order to clarify their phylogenetic position and taxonomic status. The mouse Lemurs from the Sahafina forest could not be assigned to any of the known mouse Lemur species and were highly divergent in all molecular analyses from all previously described species. Since they also differed morphometrically from their sister species and from their geographic neighbors, we propose species status and include a species description at the end. This study suggests that M. lehilahytsara may be the first highland specialist among all mouse Lemurs. The distribution of the newly described mouse Lemur is not fully known, but seems to be rather restricted and highly fragmented, which raises serious conservation concerns.
-
Lemur Diversity in Madagascar
International Journal of Primatology, 2008Co-Authors: Russell A. Mittermeier, Jörg U. Ganzhorn, Ian Tattersall, Jonah Ratsimbazafy, Kenneth E. Glander, William R. Konstant, Colin P. Groves, Anthony B. Rylands, Andreas Hapke, Mireya I. MayorAbstract:A basic understanding of the taxonomy, diversity, and distributions of primates is essential for their conservation. This review of the status of the taxonomy of Lemurs is based on a 5-d workshop entitled “Primate Taxonomy for the New Millennium,” held at the Disney Institute, Orlando, Florida, in February 2000. The aim is not to present a taxonomic revision, but to review our current understanding of the diversity and current and past ranges of Lemurs and indicate where there is controversy, discrepancy, or lack of knowledge. Our goal therefore is to provide a baseline for future taxonomic investigation, as well as a clearer focus for research and conservation priorities. We here focus on the Lemurs of Madagascar and recognize 5 families, 15 genera, and 99 species and subspecies. We list 39 species of Lemurs described since 2000: 2 dwarf Lemurs, Cheirogaleus; 11 mouse Lemurs, Microcebus; a giant mouse Lemur, Mirza; a bamboo Lemur, HapaLemur; 17 sportive Lemurs, LepiLemur; and 7 woolly Lemurs, Avahi. Taxonomic revisions have resulted in the resurrection of a further 9 taxa. However, the figures do not represent the total diversity of Malagasy Lemurs because more new species are being identified via new field studies and accompanying genetic research, and should be described in the near future.
Caitlin J Karanewsky - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
Drivers of in vivo bite performance in wild brown mouse Lemurs and a comparison with the grey mouse Lemur
Journal of Zoology, 2018Co-Authors: P. B. Zablocki Thomas, Caitlin J Karanewsky, J. L. Pendleton, Fabienne Aujard, Emmanuelle Pouydebat, Anthony HerrelAbstract:Physical performance is crucial for animal survival and fitness. In this context, greater bite forces can provide advantages and may allow an individual to gain access to reproductive partners and/or different food resources. Here, we explored the determinants of bite force in a wild population of the brown mouse Lemur (Microcebus rufus). Our objectives were to elucidate (1) if sex, head width, heart rate (as an indicator of overall physical fitness) and body condition drive variation in bite force in this population of wild mouse Lemurs; and (2) the relative importance of the ecological niche in determining bite force by comparing results from this wild population with previously published results on bite force, body mass and head width from a laboratory colony of the grey mouse Lemur (Microcebus murinus). We captured 32 wild brown mouse Lemurs at night in the Ranomafana National Park in Madagascar during the beginning of the rainy season from 1st to 31st October 2016. We measured bite force, heart rate, body mass and head width of all individuals, and assigned sex and body condition (estimated as the unstandardized residual of a regression of body mass against head size). Although maximum bite force was positively correlated with body mass, it was not correlated with body condition. Residual bite force was highly correlated with residual head width and heart rate. The mean bite force of wild brown mouse Lemurs was much lower than that of grey mouse Lemurs in captivity, but showed similar relationships to head dimension and body mass. Even when corrected by body condition, grey mouse Lemurs bit significantly harder than brown mouse Lemurs. The difference in bite force between species could be explained by differences in head size and niche divergence with brown mouse Lemurs eating mostly soft fruits and grey mouse Lemurs eating more hard insects.
-
effects of sex and age on heterothermy in goodman s mouse Lemur microcebus lehilahytsara
International Journal of Primatology, 2015Co-Authors: Martin R Bauert, Caitlin J Karanewsky, Patricia C. WrightAbstract:All habitats of Madagascar go through a dry season from April to September each year, resulting in a period of fruit scarcity lasting up to 6 months and creating selection pressure for adaptation to fluctuations in resources. Some Cheirogaleid Lemurs, including mouse Lemurs (Microcebus), use daily torpor and long-term hibernation during this period, saving energy through inactivity. Capture–recapture studies in some mouse Lemur populations have suggested a pattern of biased sex ratio throughout the winter as a result of females hibernating while most males remain active. We studied winter activity in a captive population of Microcebus lehilahytsara, Goodman’s mouse Lemur, in a large enclosure at Zoo Zurich, Switzerland using capture–recapture methods to determine how this behavior varies with sex and age, and what this pattern suggests about the ultimate cause of torpor use in this clade. Our results suggest that Goodman’s mouse Lemurs use torpor to avoid seasonal food shortage, even though they experience less extreme seasonal variability of food availability than western dry forest mouse Lemurs. Male and female Goodman’s mouse Lemurs are equally capable of winter torpor, and most remaining active individuals are young that have not sufficiently fattened. This suggests that the “ideal” winter behavior for both males and females is torpor, which ultimately avoids periods of seasonal food scarcity.
