The Experts below are selected from a list of 288 Experts worldwide ranked by ideXlab platform
Min Zhao - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
induction of a white laccase from the deuteromycete myrothecium Verrucaria nf 05 and its potential in decolorization of dyes
Biocatalysis and Biotransformation, 2014Co-Authors: Dan Zhao, Jian Shuai Mu, Xi Zhang, Yan Wang, Min ZhaoAbstract:Myrothecium Verrucaria NF-05 is a deuteromycete fungus capable of producing a white laccase. The optimal concentration of Cu2+ for laccase production by this strain is 0.2 mM (43.23 ± 1.16 U mL− 1). A comprehensive investigation of the induction demonstrated that NF-05 laccase production could be synergistically enhanced by various inducers, including aromatic phenols, amines and recalcitrant dyes, in the presence of 0.2 mM Cu2+. Sixteen phenols, fourteen amines and four dyes exhibited significant inductive effects on laccase production. The best inducer was 3, 3’-dimethylbenzidine, which increased laccase production to 258.1 ± 11.1 U mL− 1. These results suggest that M. Verrucaria NF-05 is a promising industrial laccase producer. Based on the increased production, purified NF-05 laccase was used to decolorize dyes of various structural types in the presence of six redox mediators. Among the 26 tested dyes, the decolorization rate of six azo dyes, chromotrope 2R, orange G6, Congo red, Ponceau S, amaranth ...
-
oxidation of aromatic compounds and bioelectrocatalysis of peroxide by a novel white laccase from myrothecium Verrucaria nf 05
Catalysis Communications, 2013Co-Authors: Xi Zhang, Dan Zhao, Min ZhaoAbstract:The enzymatic and electrochemical catalytic properties of a novel white laccase from Myrothecium Verrucaria NF-05 were evaluated and compared with those of commercial oxidoreductases. NF-05 laccase effectively catalyzed the oxidation of several phenols and amines, indicating its wide substrate specificity. The cyclic voltammetry curves showed direct electron transfer on carbonous electrodes due to the direct absorption of NF-05 laccase. Peroxide was bioelectrochemically reduced more efficiently on NF-05 laccase-modified electrodes than on electrodes that were modified with commercial enzymes. The results demonstrate the potential applications of this enzyme in environmental bioremediation of aromatic pollutants and preparation of electronic devices.
-
purification characterization and decolorization of bilirubin oxidase from myrothecium Verrucaria 3 2190
Fungal Biology, 2012Co-Authors: Min Zhao, Lei LuAbstract:Abstract Myrothecium Verrucaria 3.2190 is a nonligninolytic fungus that produces bilirubin oxidase. Both M. Verrucaria and the extracellular bilirubin oxidase were tested for their ability to decolorize indigo carmine. The biosorption and biodegradation of the dye were detected during the process of decolorization; more than 98% decolorization efficiency was achieved after 7 days at 26 °C. Additionally, the crude bilirubin oxidase can efficiently decolorize indigo carmine at 30 °C∼50 °C, pH 5.5∼9.5 with dye concentrations of 50 mg l −1 ∼200 mg l −1 . Bilirubin oxidase was purified and visualized as a single band on native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). Several enzymatic properties of the purified enzyme were investigated. Moreover, the identity of the purified bilirubin oxidase (BOD) was confirmed by matrix assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). These results demonstrate that the purified bilirubin oxidase in M. Verrucaria strain has potential application in dye effluent decolorization.
-
characterisation of a novel white laccase from the deuteromycete fungus myrothecium Verrucaria nf 05 and its decolourisation of dyes
PLOS ONE, 2012Co-Authors: Xi Zhang, Dan Zhao, Min ZhaoAbstract:A novel ‘white’ laccase was purified from the deuteromycete fungus, Myrothecium Verrucaria NF-05, which was a high laccase-producing strain (40.2 U·ml−1 on the thirteenth day during fermentation). SDS-PAGE and native-PAGE revealed a single band with laccase activity corresponding to a molecular weight of approximately 66 kDa. The enzyme had three copper and one iron atoms per protein molecule determined by ICP-AES. Furthermore, both UV/visible and EPR spectroscopy remained silence, indicating the enzyme a novel laccase with new metal compositions of active centre and spectral properties. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the purified protein was APQISPQYPM. Together with MALDI-TOF analysis, the protein revealed a high homology of the protein with that from reported M. Verrucaria. The highest activity was detected at pH 4.0 and at 30°C. The enzyme activity was significantly enhanced by Na+, Mn2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ while inhibited by DTT, NaN3 and halogen anions. The kinetic constant (Km) showed the enzyme was more affinitive to ABTS than other tested aromatic substrates. Twelve structurally different dyes could be effectively decolourised by the laccase within 10 min. The high production of the strain and novel properties of the laccase suggested its potential for biotechnological applications.
Dan Zhao - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
induction of a white laccase from the deuteromycete myrothecium Verrucaria nf 05 and its potential in decolorization of dyes
Biocatalysis and Biotransformation, 2014Co-Authors: Dan Zhao, Jian Shuai Mu, Xi Zhang, Yan Wang, Min ZhaoAbstract:Myrothecium Verrucaria NF-05 is a deuteromycete fungus capable of producing a white laccase. The optimal concentration of Cu2+ for laccase production by this strain is 0.2 mM (43.23 ± 1.16 U mL− 1). A comprehensive investigation of the induction demonstrated that NF-05 laccase production could be synergistically enhanced by various inducers, including aromatic phenols, amines and recalcitrant dyes, in the presence of 0.2 mM Cu2+. Sixteen phenols, fourteen amines and four dyes exhibited significant inductive effects on laccase production. The best inducer was 3, 3’-dimethylbenzidine, which increased laccase production to 258.1 ± 11.1 U mL− 1. These results suggest that M. Verrucaria NF-05 is a promising industrial laccase producer. Based on the increased production, purified NF-05 laccase was used to decolorize dyes of various structural types in the presence of six redox mediators. Among the 26 tested dyes, the decolorization rate of six azo dyes, chromotrope 2R, orange G6, Congo red, Ponceau S, amaranth ...
-
oxidation of aromatic compounds and bioelectrocatalysis of peroxide by a novel white laccase from myrothecium Verrucaria nf 05
Catalysis Communications, 2013Co-Authors: Xi Zhang, Dan Zhao, Min ZhaoAbstract:The enzymatic and electrochemical catalytic properties of a novel white laccase from Myrothecium Verrucaria NF-05 were evaluated and compared with those of commercial oxidoreductases. NF-05 laccase effectively catalyzed the oxidation of several phenols and amines, indicating its wide substrate specificity. The cyclic voltammetry curves showed direct electron transfer on carbonous electrodes due to the direct absorption of NF-05 laccase. Peroxide was bioelectrochemically reduced more efficiently on NF-05 laccase-modified electrodes than on electrodes that were modified with commercial enzymes. The results demonstrate the potential applications of this enzyme in environmental bioremediation of aromatic pollutants and preparation of electronic devices.
-
characterisation of a novel white laccase from the deuteromycete fungus myrothecium Verrucaria nf 05 and its decolourisation of dyes
PLOS ONE, 2012Co-Authors: Xi Zhang, Dan Zhao, Min ZhaoAbstract:A novel ‘white’ laccase was purified from the deuteromycete fungus, Myrothecium Verrucaria NF-05, which was a high laccase-producing strain (40.2 U·ml−1 on the thirteenth day during fermentation). SDS-PAGE and native-PAGE revealed a single band with laccase activity corresponding to a molecular weight of approximately 66 kDa. The enzyme had three copper and one iron atoms per protein molecule determined by ICP-AES. Furthermore, both UV/visible and EPR spectroscopy remained silence, indicating the enzyme a novel laccase with new metal compositions of active centre and spectral properties. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the purified protein was APQISPQYPM. Together with MALDI-TOF analysis, the protein revealed a high homology of the protein with that from reported M. Verrucaria. The highest activity was detected at pH 4.0 and at 30°C. The enzyme activity was significantly enhanced by Na+, Mn2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ while inhibited by DTT, NaN3 and halogen anions. The kinetic constant (Km) showed the enzyme was more affinitive to ABTS than other tested aromatic substrates. Twelve structurally different dyes could be effectively decolourised by the laccase within 10 min. The high production of the strain and novel properties of the laccase suggested its potential for biotechnological applications.
Alan Orange - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
Four new species of Verrucaria (Verrucariaceae, lichenized Ascomycota) from freshwater habitats in Europe
The Lichenologist, 2020Co-Authors: Alan OrangeAbstract:AbstractVerrucaria nodosa sp. nov. and V. rosula sp. nov. each have a thallus composed of initially discrete units which coalesce and overlap with age, forming an uneven crust. They are related species and similar in appearance, but the thallus units are coarser in Verrucaria nodosa, and the involucrellum is typically more regularly thickened than in V. rosula. Verrucaria placida sp. nov. has a smooth, subgelatinous thallus; it is related to V. hydrophila sp. nov. but differs in the larger ascospores and perithecia. It is not closely related to V. andesiatica but is morphologically similar, differing mainly in the narrower ascospores. Verrucaria hydrophila has been widely known as V. hydrela auct., non Ach. or V. denudata Zsch. nom. illeg. Verrucaria laevata Ach. is considered to be a nomen dubium.
-
revision of the Verrucaria elaeomelaena species complex and morphologically similar freshwater lichens Verrucariaceae ascomycota
Phytotaxa, 2015Co-Authors: Holger Thues, Alan Orange, Juha Pykala, Cecile Gueidan, Cristina Ruberti, Lo F Schiavo, Juri NascimbeneAbstract:The freshwater lichens Verrucaria elaeomelaena , V. alpicola, and V. funckii (Verrucariaceae/Ascomycota) have long been confused with V. margacea and V. placida and conclusions on the substratum preference and distribution have been obscured due to misidentifications. Independent phylogenetic analyses of a multigene dataset ( RPB 1, mtSSU, nuLSU) and an ITS-dataset combined with morphological and ecological characters confirm that the Verrucaria elaeomelaena agg. consists of several cryptic taxa. It includes V. elaeomelaena s.str. with mostly grey to mid-brown thalli and transparent exciple base which cannot be distinguished morphologically from several other unnamed clades from low elevations, the semi-cryptic V. humida spec. nov. , which is characterised by smaller perithecia, shorter and more elongated spores compared to other species in this group and V. alpicola with specimens mostly from high elevations, dark brown to black thalli, a brown exciple base and large ascospores. While Verrucaria funckii is confirmed to be restricted to siliceous substrata, limestone and siliceous substrata are both colonised by V. elaeomelaena s.str. as well as by representatives of various other clades. The substratum type cannot be seen as a diagnostic character for taxa within this species group. The taxa included in Verrucaria elaeomelaena agg. are closely related to V. submersella and together with V. funckii they form a sister clade to the “ Endocarpon -group” in the Verrucariaceae. Verrucaria margacea is superficially similar to some specimens of V. elaeomelaena agg. It is nested within an unresolved larger clade with Dermatocarpon , the subclades of the Endocarpon - and the V. elaeomelaena -group. Verrucaria margacea can be distinguished from most of the specimens in the V. elaeomelaena group by its generally non subgelatinous thallus, often with distinct cracks, narrowly ellipsoidal ascospores and the general absence of a black basal layer or dark pigments in the exciple base. The form and size of the ascospores distinguish V. placida from most specimens in the V. elaeomelaena complex, but there is overlap with some forms of V. alpicola . Epitypes are proposed for V. elaeomelaena, V. alpicola and V. margacea and a European key to the species of subgelatinous freshwater Verrucaria with spreading involucrellum and large ascospores is provided.
-
Two new or misunderstood species related to Verrucaria praetermissa (Verrucariaceae, lichenized Ascomycota)
The Lichenologist, 2014Co-Authors: Alan OrangeAbstract:AbstractThe taxonomy of species related to Verrucaria praetermissa is investigated using morphological and molecular data. Verrucaria devensis is closely related to V. praetermissa but distinguished by the darker colour, the thinner and more uneven thallus, and the ITS sequence. This species is based on Leucocarpopsis devensis G. Salisb., which was originally described as the type species of a monotypic genus differing from Verrucaria by the absence of dark pigment. Verrucaria lapidicola is a new species from stones in non-aquatic situations; it is related to V. praetermissa and V. elaeina but differs in the very thin thallus and ITS sequence.
-
the Verrucaria fuscella group in great britain and ireland
Lichenologist, 2004Co-Authors: Alan OrangeAbstract:Abstract: Verrucaria canella , V. fuscella and V. polysticta occur in Great Britain and Ireland; thesespecies have been widely confused, and have often incorrectly been called V. glaucina . Similarspecimens parasitic on Aspicilia caesiocinerea may belong to an additional, undescribed species. Alectotype is selected for V. fuscella . Key words: Great Britain, Ireland, parasitic lichens, Verrucaria . Introduction The species of Verrucaria treated here havea well-developed epilithic thallus which isdivided into discrete areoles with blacksides, and perithecia which are completelyimmersed in the thallus. Three, or possiblyfour, taxa occur in the British Isles, buttheir taxonomy and nomenclature have beenconfused.The first species to be described was Verrucaria fuscella (Turner 1804), althoughthe description was poor by modernstandards. Borrer (1834) described a secondspecies, V. polysticta , and his discussionshows that he correctly understood the dis-tinction between this and V. fuscella . Theillustrations of Leighton (1851) show that hefollowed the earlier authors’ concepts ofthese species. However, later British authorsapparently had a less clear concept of thetaxa; the floras of Leighton (1879) andSmith (1911) distinguished three taxa, butthe descriptions were inadequate andemphasized misleading characters such asthallus colour. The same three taxa werelisted in Watson (1953), but the checklist ofJames (1965) combined all three under thename
-
The Verrucaria fuscella group in Great Britain and Ireland
Lichenologist, 2004Co-Authors: Alan OrangeAbstract:ABSTRACT Verrucaria canella, V. fuscella and V. polysticta occur in Great Britain and Ireland; these species have been widely confused, and have often incorrectly been called V. glaucina. Similar specimens parasitic on Aspicilia caesiocinerea may belong to an additional, undescribed species. A lectotype is selected for V. fuscella.
Mark A Weaver - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
management of kudzu by the bioherbicide myrothecium Verrucaria herbicides and integrated control programmes
Biocontrol Science and Technology, 2016Co-Authors: Mark A Weaver, Douglas C Boyette, Robert E HoaglandAbstract:ABSTRACTReplicated field plots were established and monitored for two years to evaluate management practices for kudzu. The bioherbicidal plant pathogen, Myrothecium Verrucaria, several herbicides and a variety of integrated control programmes achieved a high level of kudzu suppression, although no system tested reliably achieved eradication in this time frame.
-
bioherbicidal activity from washed spores of myrothecium Verrucaria
World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology, 2012Co-Authors: Mark A Weaver, Douglas C Boyette, Robert E HoaglandAbstract:The fungal plant pathogen, Myrothecium Verrucaria, is highly virulent to several important weed species and has potential utility as a bioherbicide. However the production of macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins by this fungus presents significant safety concerns. It was discovered that trichothecenes are removed from M. Verrucaria spores by repeated washes with water. These washed spores retained bioherbicidal efficacy against kudzu when tested in field trials and on sicklepod when tested under greenhouse conditions. Changes in the growth medium combined with washing spores with water resulted in greater than 95% reduction in roridin A and verrucarin A. Washing spores reduced trichothecene concentrations in spore preparations with no significant effect on plant biomass reduction, thus demonstrating the possibility of M. Verrucaria formulations with improved safety to researchers, producers and applicators.
-
improved bioherbicidal efficacy by myrothecium Verrucaria via spray adjuvants or herbicide mixtures
Biological Control, 2009Co-Authors: Mark A Weaver, Robert E Hoagland, Clyde D BoyetteAbstract:Abstract Herbicides and spray adjuvants were evaluated for compatibility with the bioherbicidal fungus, Myrothecium Verrucaria. Several commercial formulations of glyphosate were found to be compatible for tank mixing with M. Verrucaria, including Touchdown® and RoundUp HiTech®. Others, such as Accord XRT II® and RoundUp WeatherMAX® killed all the spores of M. Verrucaria immediately after mixing at only 10% the maximum labeled application rate. Many herbicides, which were not suitable for co-application with M. Verrucaria, did not inhibit the growth of the fungus when added directly to media at up to 1% concentration, indicating that these products could be compatible with M. Verrucaria as sequential applications in an integrated weed management system. Several commercially available spray adjuvants and polyoxyethylene tridecyl ether (TDA) formulations were tested in vitro for their efficiency in dispersing spores and in a plant bioassay for bioherbicidal activity. All of the products improved the activity of M. Verrucaria over the water-only treatments and TDA formulations with a hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) number of 8 or 10 had the highest activity. The mechanism for improved bioherbicidal activity with these adjuvants was investigated in vitro, and TDA HLB 8 and 10 did not significantly improve conidia dispersal or accelerate spore germination relative to other surfactants. It is possible that the role of the surfactant is in the alteration of the plant cuticle or otherwise preparing the infection court. Better adjuvant selection and integration with affordable synthetic herbicides should aid in the development of more cost-effective biological control of weeds.
-
macrocyclic trichothecene production and sporulation by a biological control strain of myrothecium Verrucaria is regulated by cultural conditions
World Mycotoxin Journal, 2009Co-Authors: Mark A Weaver, Robert E Hoagland, Clyde D Boyette, Robert M ZablotowiczAbstract:Myrothecium Verrucaria is a pathogen of several invasive weed species, including kudzu, and is currently being evaluated for use as a bioherbicide. However, the fungus also produces macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins. The safety of this biological control agent during production and handling would be improved if an inoculum could be produced without concomitant accumulation of macrocyclic trichothecenes. Sporulation and trichothecene production by M. Verrucaria was evaluated on standard potato dextrose agar (PDA) and a series of complex and defined media. Sporulation on PDA and on agar media with nitrogen as ammonium nitrate or potassium nitrate was more than ten-fold greater then sporulation on the medium with ammonium sulphate as the nitrogen source. Accumulation of macrocyclic trichothecenes was strongly affected by the media composition, with higher levels often associated with higher carbon content in the media. Overall, incubation in continuous darkness resulted in higher macrocyclic trichothecene...
-
enzyme linked immunosorbent assay detection of trichothecenes produced by the bioherbicide myrothecium Verrucaria in cell cultures extracts and plant tissues
Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 2008Co-Authors: Robert E Hoagland, Mark A Weaver, Douglas C BoyetteAbstract:A rapid technique for trichothecene detection was needed in screening tests of the potential bioherbicide Myrothecium Verrucaria (MV), in order to select strains, mutants, or formulations that were void of or that possessed low amounts of these undesirable mycotoxin compounds. Commercially available enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) plates for trichothecene detection, possessing cross‐reactivity with several trichothecene mycotoxins (e.g., verrucarin A, and J, roridin A, L‐2, E, and H), were tested for their ability to detect trichothecenes produced by a strain of Myrothecium Verrucaria (MV) in cell cultures, in plant tissues (hemp sesbania and kudzu) treated with purified roridin A, or ethyl acetate fractions of MV cultures. Evaluations of ELISA assays showed linear responses for standards of verrucarin A and roridin A over a concentration range of 0.2 to 20 ppb. Ethyl acetate or aqueous extractions were used to obtain samples from MV cultures and plant tissues for testing. Trichothecenes were de...
Robert E Hoagland - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
-
management of kudzu by the bioherbicide myrothecium Verrucaria herbicides and integrated control programmes
Biocontrol Science and Technology, 2016Co-Authors: Mark A Weaver, Douglas C Boyette, Robert E HoaglandAbstract:ABSTRACTReplicated field plots were established and monitored for two years to evaluate management practices for kudzu. The bioherbicidal plant pathogen, Myrothecium Verrucaria, several herbicides and a variety of integrated control programmes achieved a high level of kudzu suppression, although no system tested reliably achieved eradication in this time frame.
-
biological control of the weed hemp sesbania sesbania exaltata in rice oryza sativa by the fungus myrothecium Verrucaria
Agronomy, 2014Co-Authors: Clyde D Boyette, Robert E Hoagland, Kenneth C StetinaAbstract:In greenhouse and field experiments, a mycelial formulation of the fungus Myrothecium Verrucaria (IMI 361690) containing 0.20% Silwet L-77 surfactant exhibited high bioherbicidal efficacy against the problematic weed hemp sesbania. Infection and mortality levels of 100% of hemp sesbania seedlings occurred within 48 h after fungal application in the greenhouse. In rice field tests conducted over a three year period, M. Verrucaria at an inoculum concentration of 50 g L−1 (dry mycelium equivalent) controlled 95% of ≤20 cm tall hemp sesbania plants. M. Verrucaria also controlled larger plants (≥60 cm tall) using this high inoculum concentration. This level of weed control, as well as rice yields from plots where weeds were effectively controlled, were similar to those which occurred with the herbicide acifluorfen. These results suggest that a mycelial formulation of M. Verrucaria has potential as a bioherbicide for controlling hemp sesbania in rice.
-
bioherbicidal activity from washed spores of myrothecium Verrucaria
World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology, 2012Co-Authors: Mark A Weaver, Douglas C Boyette, Robert E HoaglandAbstract:The fungal plant pathogen, Myrothecium Verrucaria, is highly virulent to several important weed species and has potential utility as a bioherbicide. However the production of macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins by this fungus presents significant safety concerns. It was discovered that trichothecenes are removed from M. Verrucaria spores by repeated washes with water. These washed spores retained bioherbicidal efficacy against kudzu when tested in field trials and on sicklepod when tested under greenhouse conditions. Changes in the growth medium combined with washing spores with water resulted in greater than 95% reduction in roridin A and verrucarin A. Washing spores reduced trichothecene concentrations in spore preparations with no significant effect on plant biomass reduction, thus demonstrating the possibility of M. Verrucaria formulations with improved safety to researchers, producers and applicators.
-
improved bioherbicidal efficacy by myrothecium Verrucaria via spray adjuvants or herbicide mixtures
Biological Control, 2009Co-Authors: Mark A Weaver, Robert E Hoagland, Clyde D BoyetteAbstract:Abstract Herbicides and spray adjuvants were evaluated for compatibility with the bioherbicidal fungus, Myrothecium Verrucaria. Several commercial formulations of glyphosate were found to be compatible for tank mixing with M. Verrucaria, including Touchdown® and RoundUp HiTech®. Others, such as Accord XRT II® and RoundUp WeatherMAX® killed all the spores of M. Verrucaria immediately after mixing at only 10% the maximum labeled application rate. Many herbicides, which were not suitable for co-application with M. Verrucaria, did not inhibit the growth of the fungus when added directly to media at up to 1% concentration, indicating that these products could be compatible with M. Verrucaria as sequential applications in an integrated weed management system. Several commercially available spray adjuvants and polyoxyethylene tridecyl ether (TDA) formulations were tested in vitro for their efficiency in dispersing spores and in a plant bioassay for bioherbicidal activity. All of the products improved the activity of M. Verrucaria over the water-only treatments and TDA formulations with a hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) number of 8 or 10 had the highest activity. The mechanism for improved bioherbicidal activity with these adjuvants was investigated in vitro, and TDA HLB 8 and 10 did not significantly improve conidia dispersal or accelerate spore germination relative to other surfactants. It is possible that the role of the surfactant is in the alteration of the plant cuticle or otherwise preparing the infection court. Better adjuvant selection and integration with affordable synthetic herbicides should aid in the development of more cost-effective biological control of weeds.
-
macrocyclic trichothecene production and sporulation by a biological control strain of myrothecium Verrucaria is regulated by cultural conditions
World Mycotoxin Journal, 2009Co-Authors: Mark A Weaver, Robert E Hoagland, Clyde D Boyette, Robert M ZablotowiczAbstract:Myrothecium Verrucaria is a pathogen of several invasive weed species, including kudzu, and is currently being evaluated for use as a bioherbicide. However, the fungus also produces macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins. The safety of this biological control agent during production and handling would be improved if an inoculum could be produced without concomitant accumulation of macrocyclic trichothecenes. Sporulation and trichothecene production by M. Verrucaria was evaluated on standard potato dextrose agar (PDA) and a series of complex and defined media. Sporulation on PDA and on agar media with nitrogen as ammonium nitrate or potassium nitrate was more than ten-fold greater then sporulation on the medium with ammonium sulphate as the nitrogen source. Accumulation of macrocyclic trichothecenes was strongly affected by the media composition, with higher levels often associated with higher carbon content in the media. Overall, incubation in continuous darkness resulted in higher macrocyclic trichothecene...
