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Leila M. Porter - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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TRUNK-TO-TRUNK LEAPING IN WILD Callimico GOELDII IN NORTHERN BOLIVIA
2014Co-Authors: Leila M. PorterAbstract:Compared to other species of tamarins and marmosets, Callimicos (Callimico goeldii) are characterized by hindlimb and hindfoot elongation, and a pattern of locomotion dominated by leaping to and from vertical supports in the forest understory. We present field data on trunk-to-trunk leaping in a habituated group of Callimicos in northern Bolivia. We measured the DBH of the takeoff and landing platform, and the distance traveled during 110 trunk-to-trunk leaps. Our results indicate that mean distance leapt by Callimicos was 1.8 m (range 0.2–4.3m). There were no significant differences in the size of takeoff (mean = 10.3 cm) and landing platforms (mean = 9.9 cm). In addition, longer leaps did not occur on larger diameter supports than did shorter leaps. Although tree trunks and saplings were the most commonly used takeoff and landing platforms, 31.8 % of the time Callimicos jumped to and from bamboo culms. These data highlight the facts that trunk-to-trunk leaping represents a highly specialized pattern of locomotion in Callimicos, and that these primates travel through mixed forests that include stands of bamboo and canopy trees. Conservation efforts to sustain viable populations of Callimico goeldii must focus on protecting and preserving habitats that contain large tracts of mixed bamboo and secondary forest. Key Words: callitrichines; locomotion; bamboo; habitat. Resumen Comparado con otras especies de tamarinos y monos titís, los Callimicos (Callimico goeldii) se caracterizan por el alargamient
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The Ecology of Exudate Production and Exudate Feeding in Saguinus and Callimico
The Evolution of Exudativory in Primates, 2010Co-Authors: Leila M. PorterAbstract:Callitrichines are small-bodied New World primates characterized by anatomical, behavioral, and/or physiological adaptations that enable individuals to exploit plant exudates. However, little is known concerning rates of exudate production and availability of exudates to primate consumers. In this investigation, we present data on patterns of exudate feeding in a mixed species troop of tamarins (Saguinus mystax and S. fuscicollis) in northeastern Peru, and a group of Callimicos (Callimico goeldii) in northwestern Bolivia. In addition, we collected data on the amount and renewal rate of exudates produced from naturally occurring and experimentally induced wounds to tree species exploited by Saguinus and Callimico. Our results indicate that exudates are available to nongouging primate foragers during most or all months of the year. In Saguinus, exudates from tree trunks, Parkia pods, and holes gouged by pygmy marmosets (Cebuella pygmaea) accounted for 16.3% of total plant feeding and foraging time. In the case of Callimico, stilt root exudates, Parkia pod exudates, and trunk exudates accounted for 35% of plant feeding time. Daily exudate production on individual trees in Bolivia (n = 17) varied from 0 to 10.75 g/day. Total monthly trunk exudate production in naturally occurring wounds present on sample trees in Peru (n = 5) ranged from 0 to 369 g. Pod exudates were available principally during the dry season, whereas trunk exudates were available during all months of the year. We argue that exudates represent a reliable and renewable resource for nongouging callitrichines, and that tamarins and Callimicos effectively track the location, availability, and productivity of trunk, stilt root, and pod exudate sources in their home range.
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Mycophagy and its influence on habitat use and ranging patterns in Callimico goeldii.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2010Co-Authors: Leila M. PorterAbstract:Mycophagy has been documented in a number of species of marmosets and lion tamarins (Callitrichinae) but its effect on ranging behavior is not known. We present the results of 10 years of research on five groups of Goeldi's monkey (Callimico goeldii) at a field site in northwestern Bolivia. We studied the diet and ranging behavior of two of the groups. On average, groups contained 4.5 individuals (range 2.0–9.0), but they gradually decreased in size until only the breeding female remained in the home range. The annual diet was composed of fungi (31.1–34.9%), fruits (34.0–40.6%), prey (17.4–30.1%), and exudates (1.0–10.9%). They had large home ranges (114–150 ha) and over time individuals tended to shift their core areas of use. They used secondary and bamboo forest and forest with dense understories more than expected based on availability. We suggest that the large home ranges and shifting core areas used by C. goeldii are components of a foraging strategy to track patchy, low density, and ephemeral fungal fruiting bodies. Our results, along with data published on other callitrichines, indicate that groups of Leontopithecus, Callithrix, and Callimico that eat fungi have larger home ranges than those that do not. Mycophagy is one of the several factors that evidently affect home range size in callitrichines. Fungi are clearly an important food source for a number of populations, but additional studies are needed to determine why some eat fungi frequently while others do not. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Social Behavior of Callimicos: Mating Strategies and Infant Care
The Smallest Anthropoids, 2009Co-Authors: Leila M. Porter, Paul A GarberAbstract:Callimico (Callimico goeldii) is the only species of tamarin or marmoset to regularly produce one infant, possibly representing a derived trait. Studies of adult–infant interactions among Callimicos, therefore, offer important insights into the evolution of cooperative infant care in callitrichids. We studied a group of Callimicos consisting of one adult female (FH), two adult males (MR and MJ), and one young female (FS), at a Bolivian field site. Opportunistic data on infant care and mating behavior were taken for 3 months following FS’s birth. Then, for 8 months, behavioral data and nearest neighbor distances were collected using focal animal sampling for 1,199 observation hours. Nearest neighbor distances among group members varied significantly (p < 0.001): on average the breeding female was found 2.7 m from her infant, 2.8 m from adult male MJ, and 3.5 m from adult male MR. The frequency of grooming behaviors varied significantly among adults (p < 0.001): FH was groomed most (8.4% of observations) and spent the least time grooming others (3.4%), while MR was groomed least (5.9%) and groomed others most (10.7%). Although FH was observed mating with both males within 2 months after the birth of FS, she did not give birth to additional offspring. All adults shared food with and carried the infant. Adults also shared food with each other. Aggressive behavior among adults was extremely rare (n = 8) and occurred six times in a feeding context and twice in a non-feeding context. These data demonstrate that despite producing singletons, Callimicos like many other callitrichids are characterized by a polyandrous mating pattern, spatially cohesive groups, and high levels of social cooperation.
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Exudates as a fallback food for Callimico goeldii.
American Journal of Primatology, 2009Co-Authors: Leila M. Porter, Edilio NacimentoAbstract:Fallback foods have been defined as resources for which a species has evolved specific masticatory and digestive adaptations, and are consumed principally when preferred foods are scarce. In the present field investigation, we examine fungi, fruit, and exudate consumption in one group of Callimico goeldii in order to determine the importance of exudates as a fallback food for this species. Based on a total of 1,198 hr of quantitative behavioral data collected between mid-November 2002–August 2003, we found that pod exudates of Parkia velutina accounted for 19% of Callimico feeding time in the dry season. This resource was not consumed in the wet season when fruits and fungi were the most common items in the diet. In the dry season of 2005 (July), the same Callimico study group did not consume Parkia pod exudates. Instead, the group ate exudates obtained from holes gouged in tree trunks by pygmy marmosets and exudates resulting from natural weathering and insect damage on trunks, roots, and lianas. Pod exudates are reported to contain greater amounts of readily available energy than do trunk and root exudates, and were consumed throughout all periods of the day, particularly in the late afternoon. Trunk and root exudates were consumed principally in the morning. We propose that digestive adaptations of the hindgut, which enable Callimicos to exploit fungi (a resource high in structural carbohydrates) year-round, predispose them to efficiently exploit and process exudates as fallback foods when other resources, such as ripe fruits, are scarce. Am. J. Primatol. 71:120–129, 2009. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Paul A Garber - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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A Comparative Study of the Kinematics of Trunk-to-Trunk Leaping in Callimico goeldii, Callithrix jacchus, and Cebuella pygmaea
The Smallest Anthropoids, 2009Co-Authors: Paul A Garber, Gregory E. Blomquist, Ana Sallenave, Gustl AnzenbergerAbstract:Callitrichids are characterized by a highly variable positional repertoire, which includes prehensile behaviors on small, flexible supports, and claw-clinging, scansorial travel, and trunk-to-trunk leaping that commonly occurs on large noncompliant supports. In this study, we examine the kinematics of trunk-to-trunk leaping in Callimico (C. goeldii), the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), and the pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea). In the wild, each species is reported to exploit vertical trunks during locomotor and feeding behavior. These species differ, however, in body mass and limb proportions. Compared to common marmosets and pygmy marmosets, Callimicos are heavier and have relatively longer hindlimbs.
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Social Behavior of Callimicos: Mating Strategies and Infant Care
The Smallest Anthropoids, 2009Co-Authors: Leila M. Porter, Paul A GarberAbstract:Callimico (Callimico goeldii) is the only species of tamarin or marmoset to regularly produce one infant, possibly representing a derived trait. Studies of adult–infant interactions among Callimicos, therefore, offer important insights into the evolution of cooperative infant care in callitrichids. We studied a group of Callimicos consisting of one adult female (FH), two adult males (MR and MJ), and one young female (FS), at a Bolivian field site. Opportunistic data on infant care and mating behavior were taken for 3 months following FS’s birth. Then, for 8 months, behavioral data and nearest neighbor distances were collected using focal animal sampling for 1,199 observation hours. Nearest neighbor distances among group members varied significantly (p < 0.001): on average the breeding female was found 2.7 m from her infant, 2.8 m from adult male MJ, and 3.5 m from adult male MR. The frequency of grooming behaviors varied significantly among adults (p < 0.001): FH was groomed most (8.4% of observations) and spent the least time grooming others (3.4%), while MR was groomed least (5.9%) and groomed others most (10.7%). Although FH was observed mating with both males within 2 months after the birth of FS, she did not give birth to additional offspring. All adults shared food with and carried the infant. Adults also shared food with each other. Aggressive behavior among adults was extremely rare (n = 8) and occurred six times in a feeding context and twice in a non-feeding context. These data demonstrate that despite producing singletons, Callimicos like many other callitrichids are characterized by a polyandrous mating pattern, spatially cohesive groups, and high levels of social cooperation.
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vertical clinging small body size and the evolution of feeding adaptations in the callitrichinae
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 1992Co-Authors: Paul A GarberAbstract:Primates of the subfamily Callitrichinae (Callimico, Callithrix, Leontopithecus, and Saguinus) are small-bodied New World monkeys (105–700 g) possessing clawlike nails on all manual and pedal digits excluding the hallux. Specialized nails in these genera serve a critical function in feeding by enabling tamarins and marmosets to cling to trunks and other large vertical supports while exploiting food resources. Within the subfamily, there is evidence of at least four distinct large-branch feeding patterns. These include (1) seasonal exudate feeding and occasional trunk foraging (many Saguinus spp.); (2) exploitation of bark surface insects and the use of trunks as a platform to locate terrestrial prey (Saguinus fuscicollis, S. nigricollis, and Callimico); (3) manipulative foraging and bark stripping to locate concealed insects and small vertebrates (Leontopithecus); and (4) tree gouging and year-round exudate feeding (many Callithrix). Large-branch feeding and the use of vertical clinging postures appear to be a primary adaptation among virtually all callitrichines, distinguishing them ecologically from other platyrrhine taxa. Given the anatomy and behavior of extant callitrichines, Saguinus appears to be the most ecologically generalized member of this subfamily, and species of this genus may provide useful models for reconstructing the feeding and foraging adaptations of early callitrichines. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, inc.
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Vertical clinging, small body size, and the evolution of feeding adaptations in the Callitrichinae.
American journal of physical anthropology, 1992Co-Authors: Paul A GarberAbstract:Primates of the subfamily Callitrichinae (Callimico, Callithrix, Leontopithecus, and Saguinus) are small-bodied New World monkeys (105-700 g) possessing clawlike nails on all manual and pedal digits excluding the hallux. Specialized nails in these genera serve a critical function in feeding by enabling tamarins and marmosets to cling to trunks and other large vertical supports while exploiting food resources. Within the subfamily, there is evidence of at least four distinct large-branch feeding patterns. These include (1) seasonal exudate feeding and occasional trunk foraging (many Saguinus spp.); (2) exploitation of bark surface insects and the use of trunks as a platform to locate terrestrial prey (Saguinus fuscicollis, S. nigricollis, and Callimico); (3) manipulative foraging and bark stripping to locate concealed insects and small vertebrates (Leontopithecus); and (4) tree gouging and year-round exudate feeding (many Callithrix). Large-branch feeding and the use of vertical clinging postures appear to be a primary adaptation among virtually all callitrichines, distinguishing them ecologically from other platyrrhine taxa. Given the anatomy and behavior of extant callitrichines, Saguinus appears to be the most ecologically generalized member of this subfamily, and species of this genus may provide useful models for reconstructing the feeding and foraging adaptations of early callitrichines.
T. Geissmann - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Radiographic evaluation of neonatal skeletal development in Callimico goeldii reveals closer similarity to Callithrix jacchus than to Saguinus oedipus.
American Journal of Primatology, 2007Co-Authors: Maria Ines Hofmann, Carsten Schradin, T. GeissmannAbstract:The phylogenetic affinities of the neotropical Goeldi's monkey (Callimico goeldii) have long been a matter of debate. Whereas most morphological evidence appears to place Callimico in a sister group position relative to the Callitrichidae, genetic studies place C. goeldii within the Callitrichidae and suggest that it is more closely related to marmosets than to tamarins. The present study presents the first radiographic analysis comparing the secondary limb bone ossification of newborn C. goeldii with representatives of the marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). The state of secondary ossification of the epiphysis and short bones is classified into three different ontogenetic stages. Our results reveal that in terms of the number of ossification centers, C. goeldii is significantly closer to C. jacchus than to S. oedipus. This is the first morphological study to support the findings of molecular studies, and the results suggest that C. goeldii is more closely related to marmosets than to tamarins.
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RESEARCH ARTICLE Radiographic Evaluation of Neonatal Skeletal Development in Callimico goeldii Reveals Closer Similarity to Callithrix jacchus Than to Saguinus oedipus
2007Co-Authors: Maria Ines Hofmann, Carsten Schradin, T. GeissmannAbstract:The phylogenetic affinities of the neotropical Goeldi’s monkey (Callimico goeldii) have long been a matter of debate. Whereas most morphological evidence appears to place Callimico in a sister group position relative to the Callitrichidae, genetic studies place C. goeldii within the Callitrichidae and suggest that it is more closely related to marmosets than to tamarins. The present study presents the first radiographic analysis comparing the secondary limb bone ossification of newborn C. goeldii with representatives of the marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). The state of secondary ossification of the epiphysis and short bones is classified into three different ontogenetic stages. Our results reveal that in terms of the number of ossification centers, C. goeldii is significantly closer to C. jacchus than to S. oedipus. This is the first morphological study to support the findings of molecular studies, and the results suggest that C. goeldii is more closely related to marmosets than to tamarins. Am. J. Primatol. 69:420‐433, 2007. c 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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A primate survey in northern Bolivia, with special reference to Goeldi’s monkey,Callimico goeldii
International Journal of Primatology, 1994Co-Authors: A. Christen, T. GeissmannAbstract:We conducted a 5-month survey on primates, with special attention to Goeldi’s monkey (Callimico goeldii), in the rainforest of northwestern Bolivia. Goeldi’s monkey is one of the least documented of all South American primates, and very little is known about its distribution. We report observations on distribution, abundance, and habitat of Callimico goeldii and other primates, incidental sightings of other mammals, and preliminary behavioral observations on Callimico and on two associated callitrichid monkey species: Saguinus fuscicollis and S. labiatus. We found a locality that appears to be particularly suitable for detailed field observations on Callimico on the north bank of the lower Río Tahuamanu .
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a primate survey in northern bolivia with special reference to goeldi s monkey Callimico goeldii
International Journal of Primatology, 1994Co-Authors: A. Christen, T. GeissmannAbstract:We conducted a 5-month survey on primates, with special attention to Goeldi’s monkey (Callimico goeldii),in the rainforest of northwestern Bolivia. Goeldi’s monkey is one of the least documented of all South American primates, and very little is known about its distribution. We report observations on distribution, abundance, and habitat of Callimico goeldiiand other primates, incidental sightings of other mammals, and preliminary behavioral observations on Callimicoand on two associated callitrichid monkey species: Saguinus fuscicollisand S. labiatus.We found a locality that appears to be particularly suitable for detailed field observations on Callimico on the north bank of the lower Rio Tahuamanu.
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A Primate Survey in Northern Bolivia, with Special Reference to Goeldi's Monkey,
1994Co-Authors: A. Christen, T. GeissmannAbstract:We conducted a 5-month survey on primates; with special attention to Goeldi’s monkey (Callimico goeldii), in the rain forest of northwestern Bolivia. Goeldi’s monkey is one of the least documented of all South American primates, and very little is known about its distribution. We report observations on distribution, abundance, and habitat of Callimico goeldii and other primates, incidental sightings of other mammals, and preliminary behavioral observations on Callimico and two associated callitrichid monkey species: Saguinus fuscicollis and S. labiatus. We found a locality that appears to be particularly suitable for detailed field observations on Callimico on the north bank of the lower Rio Tahuamanu.
Gustl Anzenberger - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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A Comparative Study of the Kinematics of Trunk-to-Trunk Leaping in Callimico goeldii, Callithrix jacchus, and Cebuella pygmaea
The Smallest Anthropoids, 2009Co-Authors: Paul A Garber, Gregory E. Blomquist, Ana Sallenave, Gustl AnzenbergerAbstract:Callitrichids are characterized by a highly variable positional repertoire, which includes prehensile behaviors on small, flexible supports, and claw-clinging, scansorial travel, and trunk-to-trunk leaping that commonly occurs on large noncompliant supports. In this study, we examine the kinematics of trunk-to-trunk leaping in Callimico (C. goeldii), the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), and the pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea). In the wild, each species is reported to exploit vertical trunks during locomotor and feeding behavior. These species differ, however, in body mass and limb proportions. Compared to common marmosets and pygmy marmosets, Callimicos are heavier and have relatively longer hindlimbs.
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Prolactin and paternal care: comparison of three species of monogamous new world monkeys (Callicebus cupreus, Callithrix jacchus, and Callimico goeldii).
Journal of Comparative Psychology, 2003Co-Authors: Carsten Schradin, Deeann M. Reeder, Sally P. Mendoza, Gustl AnzenbergerAbstract:The authors explored whether prolactin is associated with paternal care in 3 monkey species: titi monkey (Callicebus cupreus), common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), and Goeldi’s monkey (Callimico goeldii). They compared prolactin levels in fathers before and after infant birth as well as between fathers and nonfathers. C. cupreus fathers carry infants almost exclusively, have higher prolactin levels than nonfathers, but show no prolactin increase after infant birth. C. goeldii fathers carry infants only after 3 weeks, show an increase in prolactin levels during the precarrying period, but do not have higher levels than nonfathers. C. jacchus fathers are the primary carriers, have higher prolactin levels than nonfathers, and show a trend for a prolactin increase after the birth of infants. In conclusion, species differences in the patterns of prolactin secretion were evident and reflect the different paternal roles.
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Mothers, not fathers, determine the delayed onset of male carrying in Goeldi's monkey (Callimico goeldii).
Journal of Human Evolution, 2003Co-Authors: Carsten Schradin, Gustl AnzenbergerAbstract:In biparental species, females are thought to accept and even to seek male assistance in rearing of the young. In this study, we present data that suggests that Goeldi's monkey females (Callimico goeldii) actually reject male parental care for a certain period. In Callimico, which have biparental care, mothers carry the infant exclusively for the first three weeks despite the fact that fathers are interested in their infants directly after birth. Fathers initiated significantly more body contact with their mates when newborn infants were present and retrieved one-day-old infants that were experimentally presented to them. The onset of paternal carrying in our colony was 27.5 days compared to 11.5 days (medians) observed in the field. However, presentation of a live potential predator induced earlier onset of paternal carrying by about 10 days. Additional costs to maternal carrying such as foraging and predator avoidance are likely factors influencing the decision of the mother as to when to share the cost of infant carrying with the father. We conclude that Goeldi's monkey fathers start carrying their infants so late because they do not get them earlier from the mother. We suggest that one ultimate explanation for that delay might be increased infant mortality when infant transfer starts at an earlier stage.
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Infant carrying in family groups of goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii).
American Journal of Primatology, 2001Co-Authors: Carsten Schradin, Gustl AnzenbergerAbstract:Goeldi's monkey (Callimico goeldii) is closely related to marmosets and tamarins. Like marmosets and tamarins, C. goeldii lives in family groups, and fathers and older offspring (helpers) participate in infant carrying. In contrast to the typical twin births in marmosets and tamarins, C. goeldii has only single offspring, and paternal carrying is delayed. We studied infant carrying following 26 births in eight groups of C. goeldii, testing hypotheses proposed in the literature on infant carrying in marmosets and tamarins. The infant was carried exclusively by the mother for the first 26.3 days after birth. Afterwards other group members participated in infant carrying. Whereas the C. goeldii mother is always the main carrier, the father does not always carry more than helpers. In contrast to other callitrichids, age and sex of sibling helpers was not found to have an effect on the participation in infant carrying. The participation in infant carrying in Callimico indicated intraindividual consistency, i.e., the amount of infant carrying performed by fathers and helpers following one birth correlated significantly with the amount of infant carrying of the same individuals following the next birth. We found a significant negative correlation between parental infant carrying and group size, indicating that helpers really do help, sharing the carrying burden with their parents. This is attributed to a clear trend for a reduction in maternal carrying in the presence of helpers, whereas fathers did not benefit from helpers. We conclude that the infant-carrying pattern in C. goeldii is different from the infant-carrying pattern in marmosets and tamarins. The main differences were that the mother instead of the father is the main carrier, and that there is a clear time delay between infant birth and when the father and helpers participate in infant carrying.
Jeremiah E. Scott - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Lost and found: The third molars of Callimico goeldii and the evolution of the callitrichine postcanine dentition
Journal of Human Evolution, 2015Co-Authors: Jeremiah E. ScottAbstract:This study tests the hypothesis that the third molars of Callimico goeldii represent a reversal in evolutionary tooth loss within the Callitrichinae. Loss of third molars is part of a suite of unusual characters that has been used to unite marmosets and tamarins in a clade to the exclusion of Callimico. However, molecular phylogenetic studies provide consistent support for the hypothesis that marmosets are more closely related to Callimico than to tamarins, raising the possibility that some or all of the features shared by marmosets and tamarins are homoplastic. Here, I use the binary-state speciation and extinction (BiSSE) model and a sample of 249 extant primate species to demonstrate that, given the shape of the primate phylogenetic tree and the distribution of character states in extant taxa, models in which M3 loss is constrained to be irreversible are much less likely than models in which reversals are allowed to occur. This result provides support for the idea that the last common ancestor of Callimico and marmosets was characterized by the two-molared phenotype. The M3s of Callimico therefore appear to be secondarily derived rather than plesiomorphic. This conclusion may also apply to the other apparently plesiomorphic traits found in Callimico. Hypotheses regarding the re-evolution of M3 in the callitrichine clade and the origin and maintenance of the two-molared phenotype are discussed.
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Lost and found: The third molars of Callimico goeldii and the evolution of the callitrichine postcanine dentition
Journal of Human Evolution, 2015Co-Authors: Jeremiah E. ScottAbstract:This study tests the hypothesis that the third molars of Callimico goeldii represent a reversal in evolutionary tooth loss within the Callitrichinae. Loss of third molars is part of a suite of unusual characters that has been used to unite marmosets and tamarins in a clade to the exclusion of Callimico. However, molecular phylogenetic studies provide consistent support for the hypothesis that marmosets are more closely related to Callimico than to tamarins, raising the possibility that some or all of the features shared by marmosets and tamarins are homoplastic. Here, I use the binary-state speciation and extinction (BiSSE) model and a sample of 249 extant primate species to demonstrate that, given the shape of the primate phylogenetic tree and the distribution of character states in extant taxa, models in which M3 loss is constrained to be irreversible are much less likely than models in which reversals are allowed to occur. This result provides support for the idea that the last common ancestor of Callimico and marmosets was characterized by the two-molared phenotype. The M3s of Callimico therefore appear to be secondarily derived rather than plesiomorphic. This conclusion may also apply to the other apparently plesiomorphic traits found in Callimico. Hypotheses regarding the re-evolution of M3 in the callitrichine clade and the origin and maintenance of the two-molared phenotype are discussed.
