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Derek Besner - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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the semantic Stroop Effect an ex gaussian analysis
Cognitive Science, 2016Co-Authors: Darcy White, Evan F Risko, Derek BesnerAbstract:Previous analyses of the standard Stroop Effect (which typically uses color words that form part of the response set) have documented Effects on mean reaction times in hundreds of experiments in the literature. Less well known is the fact that ex-Gaussian analyses reveal that such Effects are seen in (a) the mean of the normal distribution (mu), as well as in (b) the standard deviation of the normal distribution (sigma) and (c) the tail (tau). No ex-Gaussian analysis exists in the literature with respect to the semantically based Stroop Effect (which contrasts incongruent color-associated words with, e.g., neutral controls). In the present experiments, we investigated whether the semantically based Stroop Effect is also seen in the three ex-Gaussian parameters. Replicating previous reports, color naming was slower when the color was carried by an irrelevant (but incongruent) color-associated word (e.g., sky, tomato) than when the control items consisted of neutral words (e.g., keg, palace) in each of four experiments. An ex-Gaussian analysis revealed that this semantically based Stroop Effect was restricted to the arithmetic mean and mu; no semantic Stroop Effect was observed in tau. These data are consistent with the views (1) that there is a clear difference in the source of the semantic Stroop Effect, as compared to the standard Stroop Effect (evidenced by the presence vs. absence of an Effect on tau), and (2) that interference associated with response competition on incongruent trials in tau is absent in the semantic Stroop Effect.
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the Stroop Effect why proportion congruent has nothing to do with congruency and everything to do with contingency
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 2008Co-Authors: James R Schmidt, Derek BesnerAbstract:The item-specific proportion congruent (ISPC) Effect refers to the observation that the Stroop Effect is larger for words that are presented mostly in congruent colors (e.g., BLUE presented 75% of the time in blue) and smaller for words that are presented mostly in a given incongruent color (e.g., YELLOW presented 75% of the time in orange). One account of the ISPC Effect, the modulation hypothesis, is that participants modulate attention based on the identity of the word (i.e., participants allow the word to influence responding when it is presented mostly in its congruent color). Another account, the contingency hypothesis, is that participants use the word to predict the response that they will need to make (e.g., if the word is YELLOW, then the response is probably "orange"). Reanalyses of data from L. L. Jacoby, D. S. Lindsay, and S. Hessels (2003), along with results from new experiments, are inconsistent with the modulation hypothesis but entirely consistent with the contingency hypothesis. A response threshold mechanism that uses contingency information provides a sufficient account of the data.
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single letter coloring and spatial cuing eliminates a semantic contribution to the Stroop Effect
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2004Co-Authors: Laurie A Manwell, Martha Anne Roberts, Derek BesnerAbstract:Previous work has shown that the Stroop Effect is reduced in size when a single letter is colored and spatially precued. The present experiment addresses a number of criticisms of this work by (1) providing a direct measure of semantic processing, (2) using a vocal response instead of a manual one, and (3) using a more appropriate baseline. A semantically based Stroop Effect (slower color naming for color-associated words than for color-neutral words) is observed when all letters in the display are precued and appear in a homogeneous color. This Stroop Effect is statistically eliminated when a single letter is precued and is the “odd man out” in terms of its color. Two explanations are considered. In one, single-letter coloring and cuing serve to curtail semantic processing. In the other, single-letter coloring and cuing help to keep the informational sources (i.e, color, word) separate and hence reduce interference, but semantic analysis is not curtailed. The latter account provides a more complete account of existing data.
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the myth of ballistic processing evidence from Stroop s paradigm
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2001Co-Authors: Derek BesnerAbstract:The Stroop Effect is widely considered to be compelling evidence that skilled readers cannot prevent themselves from reading the irrelevant word or even delay such processing. In contrast, several reports indicate that the Stroop Effect can be eliminated by various simple manipulations. These reports have been criticized on several grounds, among them that the baseline condition is suspect. These criticisms are addressed by showing that when (1) a neutral baseline is replaced by congruent trials, (2) single letter cuing and coloring manipulations are combined, (3) attentional window conditions are blocked, and (4) the congruent/incongruent trial ratio is 20/80, the Stroop Effect is eliminated. A second major finding is that despite no Stroop Effect, negative priming is observed, consistent with the hypothesis that a distinct but delayed perceptual act processes the word. The default set may be to process to the highest level (semantics), but these reading processes are (contextually) controlled rather than ballistic.
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unconsciously controlled processing the Stroop Effect reconsidered
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1999Co-Authors: Derek Besner, Jennifer A StolzAbstract:The Stroop Effect is widely considered to be compelling evidence that an acquired skill such as reading is “automatic” in the sense that lexical/semantic analyses of single words cannot be prevented, even when they are irrelevant and harmful to the task at hand. This view is challenged by a series of three experiments in which the presence/absence of a Stroop Effect depends on (1) whether all of the target elements are colored or not, in conjunction with (2) whether the target and the spatially distinct color word distractor belong to the same domain or not. A framework is offered in which domain-specific encoding algorithms play a major role. Skilled word recognition is typically unconscious, but is characterized better as contextually controlled, rather than “automatic.”
Avishai Henik - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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examining the Stroop Effect using a develomental spatial neuroevolution system
Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference, 2015Co-Authors: Amit Benbassat, Avishai HenikAbstract:We present a novel approach to the study of cognitive abilities by using evolutionary computation. To this end we use a spatial, developmental, neuroevolution system presented here for the first time. We use our system to evolve ANNs to perform simple abstractions of cognitive tasks such as size perception, counting color identification and reading. We define these tasks to explore hypotheses about the evolution of counting and the the nature of the Stroop Effect. Our results show the versatility of our evolutionary system. We show that we can evolve it to perform a variety of cognitive tasks, and also that evolved networks exhibit interference behavior when dealing with multiple tasks and incongruent data.
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additional insights commentary on the musical Stroop Effect opening a new avenue to research on automatisms by l gregoire p perruchet and b poulin charronnat experimental psychology 2013 vol 60 pp 269 278
Experimental Psychology, 2014Co-Authors: Lilach Akivakabiri, Avishai HenikAbstract:In their paper "The Musical Stroop Effect: Opening a New Avenue to Research on Automatisms," Gregoire, Perruchet, and Poulin-Charronnat (2013) use a musical Stroop-like task to demonstrate the automaticity of musical note naming in musicians. In addition, the authors suggest that music training can serve as a tool in order to study the acquisition of automaticity. In the following commentary, we aim to address three main issues concerning the paper by Gregoire et al. (2013) . First, we will suggest some additional interpretations of the results; specifically, we will relate to the association between music and space. Second, we will discuss a methodological issue dealing with interference, facilitation, and the role of the neutral condition. We suggest that the study by Gregoire et al. (2013) lacks a proper neutral condition and thus it is impossible to assert that the congruency Effect is interference based. Third, we will discuss the authors' suggestion of using the musical Stroop Effect as a tool for studying automatism. We consider the practical relevance of music training as a tool for studying the acquisition of automaticity by pointing out that music training is highly heterogeneous.
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a unique asymmetrical Stroop Effect in absolute pitch possessors
Experimental Psychology, 2012Co-Authors: Lilach Akivakabiri, Avishai HenikAbstract:The Stroop task has been employed to study automaticity or failures of selective attention for many years. The Effect is known to be asymmetrical, with words affecting color naming but not vice versa. In the current work two auditory-visual Stroop-like tasks were devised in order to study the automaticity of pitch processing in both absolute pitch (AP) possessors and musically trained controls without AP (nAP). In the tone naming task, participants were asked to name the auditory tone while ignoring a visual note name. In the note naming task, participants were asked to read a note name while ignoring the auditory tone. The nAP group showed a significant congruency Effect only in the tone naming task, whereas AP possessors showed the reverse pattern, with a significant congruency Effect only in the note reading task. Thus, AP possessors were unable to ignore the auditory tone when asked to read the note, but were unaffected by the verbal note name when asked to label the auditory tone. The results suggest that pitch identification in participants endowed with AP ability is automatic and impossible to suppress.
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think the thought walk the walk social priming reduces the Stroop Effect
Cognition, 2011Co-Authors: Liat Goldfarb, Daniela Aisenberg, Avishai HenikAbstract:In the Stroop task, participants name the color of the ink that a color word is written in and ignore the meaning of the word. Naming the color of an incongruent color word (e.g., RED printed in blue) is slower than naming the color of a congruent color word (e.g., RED printed in red). This robust Effect is known as the Stroop Effect and it suggests that the intentional instruction - "do not read the word" - has limited influence on one's behavior, as word reading is being executed via an automatic path. Herein is examined the influence of a non-intentional instruction - "do not read the word" - on the Stroop Effect. Social concept priming tends to trigger automatic behavior that is in line with the primed concept. Here participants were primed with the social concept "dyslexia" before performing the Stroop task. Because dyslectic people are perceived as having reading difficulties, the Stroop Effect was reduced and even failed to reach significance after the dyslectic person priming. A similar Effect was replicated in a further experiment, and overall it suggests that the human cognitive system has more success in decreasing the influence of another automatic process via an automatic path rather than via an intentional path.
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evidence for task conflict in the Stroop Effect
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2007Co-Authors: Liat Goldfarb, Avishai HenikAbstract:C. M. MacLeod and P. A. MacDonald (2000) suggested that congruent and incongruent Stroop stimuli cause more task conflict than neutral stimuli because the anterior cingulate cortex is more activated with these stimuli. This study investigated behavioral expression for this pattern. Experiment 1 reduced task conflict control by increasing the proportion of nonword neutrals. Additionally, half the trials had conflict or neutral cues. The control reduction revealed the task conflict. For noncued trials, response time was longer for congruent stimuli than for neutral stimuli (reverse facilitation Effect). In addition, response time for congruent stimuli was longer when stimuli were uncued vs. cued. Experiment 2 increased task conflict control by changing the neutral stimuli to noncolor words. Consequently, the task conflict expression disappeared.
Joseph Tzelgov - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Focusing on task conflict in the Stroop Effect
Psychological Research, 2018Co-Authors: Olga Entel, Joseph TzelgovAbstract:Two types of conflict underlie performance in the Stroop task—informational (between the incongruent word and its ink color) and task (between the relevant color-naming task and the irrelevant word-reading task). We manipulated congruent-to-neutral trial ratio in an attempt to reveal whether task conflict can be monitored and controlled in the absence of an informational conflict. In our first experiment, no incongruent trials were included, thus allowing examination of a pure task conflict situation. The results revealed an impressively large facilitation when most of the stimuli were congruent and a smaller yet significant facilitation when most of the stimuli were neutrals. In Experiments 2, exposing participants to incongruent trials during pre-experimental practice (but not during the experimental blocks) slowed down the responses to congruent trials, resulting in a reduced facilitation Effect in the mostly congruent condition, and in a negative facilitation in the mostly neutral condition. In our third experiment, we replicated our results, eliminating possible contingency and frequency biases. Overall, our findings show that experiencing, or at least expecting, informational conflict is essential to reveal conflict, while control is recruited through task demands. This challenges previous findings and points out that additional research is needed to clarify the necessity of informational conflict for conflict detection.
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modulation of conflicts in the Stroop Effect
Acta Psychologica, 2017Co-Authors: Ido Shichel, Joseph TzelgovAbstract:Abstract The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the unique contribution of task conflict, semantic conflict and response conflict to the Stroop Effect and to test how these conflicts are modulated by manipulating the proportion of neutral trials, known to affect the magnitude of the Stroop Effect. In the first experiment, we employed the two-to-one paradigm (De Houwer, 2003) while adding neutral illegible stimuli, and in the second experiment, we employed two colors and four word colors. In both experiments, we created four congruency conditions (neutral, congruent and two kind of incongruent conditions—those that include response conflict and those that do not), which allowed decomposing the Stroop Effect into three orthogonal conflicts. In both experiments, we also manipulated the proportion of neutral trials. Task conflict was defined by the contrast between illegible neutrals and color words, semantic conflict by the contrast between congruent and incongruent stimuli, and response conflict by contrasting the two kinds of incongruent stimuli. Our results showed that all conflicts contributed to the Stroop Effect. Task conflict and semantic conflict were modulated by the proportion of neutrals but response conflict was not. These findings imply that task conflict and semantic conflict are part of the control loop of the Stroop Effect, as conceptualized by Botvinick et al.'s (2001) conflict monitoring model. There is no clear evidence of the response conflict being part of the loop. To complete the picture, we also analyzed the conflicts in the Stroop task using the traditional dependent contrasts approach and found the basic pattern of results was similar. Thus, the main advantage of the orthogonal comparisons approach is the possibility to estimate the unique contribution of the conflicts contributing to the Stroop Effect and their modulation of the Stroop phenomenon.
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conflict components of the Stroop Effect and their control
Frontiers in Psychology, 2014Co-Authors: Yulia Levin, Joseph TzelgovAbstract:We do not pretend that the distinction between task and information conflict can solve the ongoing argument regarding the mechanism behind the “flexibility” of the Stroop Effect, as reflected by the proportion Effect. We do believe that the awareness of the fact that only one of two components contributing to the Stroop Effect is a genuine marker of the automaticity of reading, would undoubtedly help in further developing existing control models, and probably new ones, that would be able to answer the question regarding controllability of reading. Distinguishing between two types of conflict can also be valuable with respect to the “control vs. learning” debate. For now, the proposed learning mechanism (i.e., contingency learning), as an alternative explanation for some of the proportion congruent Effects, has only been proven to be independent from the IC. However, as mentioned, the TC is what really matters. Hence, in order to be considered as an independently standing mechanism that is not part of the control system, the contingency learning should also be evident when no TC is produced by stimuli. Conflict of interest statement The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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unintentional word reading via the phonological route the Stroop Effect with cross script homophones
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 1996Co-Authors: Joseph Tzelgov, Avishai Henik, Rinat Sneg, Oshrit BaruchAbstract:Single-route theories that argue that access to meaning is always mediated by phonology are consistent with process theories of automaticity. Dual-route theories, suggesting that reading skill results in direct access, are consistent with the notion of automaticity as memory retrieval. If word reading reflects memory retrieval, the Stroop Effect should be absent in the absence of cues normally serving for retrieval. The Stroop Effect was obtained in Hebrew-English bilinguals for cross-script homophones, which have meaning as color names in one language but are written in a script of the other language. The Stroop Effect in cross-script homophones was independent of response mode and was insensitive to color-related proportion, supporting the assumption of different routes being involved in access to meaning of regular words and cross-script homophones. Implications for automaticity, theories of word reading, and knowledge representation by bilinguals are discussed. Reading is a cognitive skill that most humans acquire early and use extensively during their lives. The term word reading, as used by us, refers to mapping from strings of graphemes (i.e., written words) to meaning, when such strings are presented in isolation. Because extensive practice leads to automatic processing (Logan, 1988a), most investigators agree that word reading, at least in skilled readers, is an automatic process. In this article we analyze word reading from the viewpoint of approaches to automaticity. Our study has implications for theories of automaticity on the one hand and for theories of word reading on the other. In addition, because of the special kinds of stimuli we used, our findings are also relevant to the issue of knowledge representation by bilinguals.
Daniel Algom - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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reclaiming the Stroop Effect back from control to input driven attention and perception
Frontiers in Psychology, 2019Co-Authors: Daniel Algom, Eran ChajutAbstract:According to a growing consensus, the Stroop Effect is understood as a phenomenon of conflict and cognitive control. A tidal wave of recent research alleges that incongruent Stroop stimuli generate conflict, which is then managed and resolved by top-down cognitive control. We argue otherwise: control studies fail to account for major Stroop results obtained over a century-long history of research. We list some of the most compelling developments and show that no control account can serve as a viable explanation for major Stroop phenomena and that there exist more parsimonious explanations for other Stroop related phenomena. Against a wealth of studies and emerging consensus, we posit that data-driven selective attention best accounts for the gamut of existing Stroop results. The case for data-driven attention is not new: a mere twenty-five years ago, the Stroop Effect was considered "the gold standard" of attention (MacLeod, 1992). We identify four pitfalls plaguing conflict monitoring and control studies of the Stroop Effect and show that the notion of top-down control is gratuitous. Looking at the Stroop Effect from a historical perspective, we argue that the recent paradigm change from stimulus-driven selective attention to control is unwarranted. Applying Occam's razor, the Effects marshaled in support of the control view are better explained by a selectivity of attention account. Moreover, many Stroop results, ignored in the control literature, are inconsistent with any control account of the Effect.
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the Stroop incongruity Effect congruity relationship reaches beyond the Stroop task
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2017Co-Authors: Tatiana Hatukai, Daniel AlgomAbstract:Stroop objects are defined by the existence of a logical relationship, congruity or incongruity, between their constituent dimensions. The Stroop Effect is the difference in performance between congruent and incongruent stimuli with respect to one of these dimensions. However, the pair of Stroop generating dimensions does not exhaust all dimensions of the object. In this study, we examined performance with respect to a third non-Stroop dimension of an otherwise Stroop object, a dimension that is unrelated to those generating the Stroop Effect. We witnessed a reversal of the usual Stroop pattern with respect to the third dimension, the Incongruity Effect. Performance was superior with Stroop-incongruent stimuli despite the fact that congruity was defined with respect to another pair of dimensions. In 8 experiments, we first documented the Incongruity Effect and then tested possible explanations. We conclude that the best account is associated with the notion that Stroop-incongruent stimuli engender negative affect that people strive to swiftly terminate. (PsycINFO Database Record
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avoiding the approach trap a response bias theory of the emotional Stroop Effect
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 2010Co-Authors: Eran Chajut, Yaniv Mama, Leora Levy, Daniel AlgomAbstract:In the laboratory, people classify the color of emotion-laden words slower than they do that of neutral words, the emotional Stroop Effect. Outside the laboratory, people react to features of emotion-laden stimuli or threatening stimuli faster than they do to those of neutral stimuli. A possible resolution to the conundrum implicates the counternatural response demands imposed in the laboratory that do not, as a rule, provide for avoidance in the face of threat. In 2 experiments we show that when such an option is provided in the laboratory, the response latencies follow those observed in real life. These results challenge the dominant attention theory offered for the emotional Stroop Effect because this theory is indifferent to the vital approach-avoidance distinction.
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comparing perception of Stroop stimuli in focused versus divided attention paradigms evidence for dramatic processing differences
Cognition, 2010Co-Authors: Ami Eidels, James T Townsend, Daniel AlgomAbstract:A huge set of focused attention experiments show that when presented with color words printed in color, observers report the ink color faster if the carrier word is the name of the color rather than the name of an alternative color, the Stroop Effect. There is also a large number (although not so numerous as the Stroop task) of so-called “redundant targets studies” that are based on divided attention instructions. These almost always indicate that observers report the presence of a visual target (‘redness’ in the stimulus) faster if there are two replications of the target (the word RED in red ink color) than if only one is present (RED in green or GREEN in red). The present set of four experiments employs the same stimuli and same participants in both designs. Evidence supports the traditional interference account of the Stroop Effect, but also supports a non-interference parallel processing account of the word and the color in the divided attention task. Theorists are challenged to find a unifying model that parsimoniously explains both seemingly contradictory results.
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wheel chairs and arm chairs a novel experimental design for the emotional Stroop Effect
Cognition & Emotion, 2009Co-Authors: Daniel Algom, Dan Zakay, Ofer Monar, Eran ChajutAbstract:The emotional Stroop Effect demonstrates that people are slower to name the ink colour of emotionally charged words than that of neutral words. Attributing this slowdown to emotionality or threat requires that the emotion and neutral words presented are equal on all extraneous variables. However, it is impossible in principle to match the two types of words on all conceivable variables. To address the problem, we presented the same set of words, polarised to be negative in one condition and neutral in another by using appropriate prime words that produced the desired valence through idiomatic two-word expressions. Across two studies, participants took longer to name the colour of the same words when they were rendered negative than when they were rendered neutral. This difference reflects a true emotional Stroop Effect given the control provided for all potentially confounding variables tied to the target stimuli. The new procedure also enables researchers to calculate item-specific emotional Stroop Effects for the first time.
Lilach Akivakabiri - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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additional insights commentary on the musical Stroop Effect opening a new avenue to research on automatisms by l gregoire p perruchet and b poulin charronnat experimental psychology 2013 vol 60 pp 269 278
Experimental Psychology, 2014Co-Authors: Lilach Akivakabiri, Avishai HenikAbstract:In their paper "The Musical Stroop Effect: Opening a New Avenue to Research on Automatisms," Gregoire, Perruchet, and Poulin-Charronnat (2013) use a musical Stroop-like task to demonstrate the automaticity of musical note naming in musicians. In addition, the authors suggest that music training can serve as a tool in order to study the acquisition of automaticity. In the following commentary, we aim to address three main issues concerning the paper by Gregoire et al. (2013) . First, we will suggest some additional interpretations of the results; specifically, we will relate to the association between music and space. Second, we will discuss a methodological issue dealing with interference, facilitation, and the role of the neutral condition. We suggest that the study by Gregoire et al. (2013) lacks a proper neutral condition and thus it is impossible to assert that the congruency Effect is interference based. Third, we will discuss the authors' suggestion of using the musical Stroop Effect as a tool for studying automatism. We consider the practical relevance of music training as a tool for studying the acquisition of automaticity by pointing out that music training is highly heterogeneous.
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a unique asymmetrical Stroop Effect in absolute pitch possessors
Experimental Psychology, 2012Co-Authors: Lilach Akivakabiri, Avishai HenikAbstract:The Stroop task has been employed to study automaticity or failures of selective attention for many years. The Effect is known to be asymmetrical, with words affecting color naming but not vice versa. In the current work two auditory-visual Stroop-like tasks were devised in order to study the automaticity of pitch processing in both absolute pitch (AP) possessors and musically trained controls without AP (nAP). In the tone naming task, participants were asked to name the auditory tone while ignoring a visual note name. In the note naming task, participants were asked to read a note name while ignoring the auditory tone. The nAP group showed a significant congruency Effect only in the tone naming task, whereas AP possessors showed the reverse pattern, with a significant congruency Effect only in the note reading task. Thus, AP possessors were unable to ignore the auditory tone when asked to read the note, but were unaffected by the verbal note name when asked to label the auditory tone. The results suggest that pitch identification in participants endowed with AP ability is automatic and impossible to suppress.
