The Experts below are selected from a list of 966 Experts worldwide ranked by ideXlab platform
Ibrahim S Almutaz - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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coupling of a Nuclear reactor to hybrid ro msf Desalination plants
Desalination, 2003Co-Authors: Ibrahim S AlmutazAbstract:Abstract Energy requirements in Desalination plants can be supplied by coupling Desalination units with Nuclear reactors. Multistage flash (MSF) plants often use low-pressure steam as an energy source. The energy consumption in MSF plant depends on the distillate flow rate and the plant performance ratio. Reverse osmosis (RO) plants are operated by electrical power to derive the high-pressure pumps and other plant auxiliaries, mainly the pretreatment processes. RO power consumption depends mainly on water recovery and the working pressure. Low pressure and temperature steam extracted from Nuclear heating reactors (NHR) may be used for supplying the necessary energy to derive the MSF units. Electricity can be generated from the Nuclear power reactor (NPR) to derive the high-pressure pumps of the RO Desalination plants. Coupling RO and MSF with Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) will yield some economical and technical advantages. The hybrid RO MSF system has potential advantages of a low power demand, improved water quality and possible lower running cost as compared to stand-alone RO or MSF plants. Developing the most appropriate plant configuration of Nuclear reactor and Desalination process is an important task that will determine the feasibility of Nuclear Desalination. The optimum coupling of hybrid RO MSF Desalination processes with Nuclear power plant will be presented in this paper.
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hybrid ro msf a practical option for Nuclear Desalination
International Journal of Nuclear Desalination, 2003Co-Authors: Ibrahim S AlmutazAbstract:Hybrid RO MSF Desalination combines the advantages of the high desalting performance of distillation processes and lower energy requirement of membrane processes. It allows a better match between power and water requirements and enables better utilisation of the power generated from MSF into the RO. Hybrid RO MSF can lead to an optimised feedwater temperature of the RO plant since is possible to use cooling seawater from the reject stage of the MSF plant as feed to the RO plant. Higher feed temperature is advantageous for the RO plant since water flux of the membrane is about 2.5% higher per degree temperature rise at a fixed pressure. Various RO MSF combinations coupled with a Nuclear power plant were studied. The optimum hybrid RO MSF scheme will be reviewed in order to illustrate the considerable gain of this option. The potential advantages of RO MSF hybrid Desalination systems with Nuclear plant will be discussed. The appropriate combinations depend on the local conditions and power/water requirements. The required power to water ratio and product water quality is among the important factors determining the particular RO MSF schemes to be used.
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potential of Nuclear Desalination in the arabian gulf countries
Desalination, 2001Co-Authors: Ibrahim S AlmutazAbstract:Abstract Arabian Gulf countries are located in an arid area with limited water resources. Hydrological investigations point to large resources of underground water, but they are saline and need to be desalted. The best choice for providing fresh water in the Arabian Gulf countries is through seawater Desalination with ground water as a back up. About 65% of Desalination plants that are in operation worldwide are located in the Arabian Gulf countries, most of which are the dual-purpose multistage flash (MSF) plants, producing power and water. Reverse osmosis (RO) is used mainly for brackish water treatment and a limited number of multiple effect distillation (MED) plants are used in the Arabian Gulf countries. The use of Nuclear Desalination is practically essential in these countries where massive quantities of water are desalinated and there is a fast increase in power demand. These is no technical impediment to the use of Nuclear reactors for supply of either heat or electricity or both to a Desalination plant. However, the cost effectiveness of Nuclear Desalination is a site dependent matter. The type of Desalination process and the size and type of the Nuclear reactor have to be determined based on the specific site data. MSF plants are considered as energy intensive processes where energy cost is a major controlling parameter in the overall cost of Desalination. Oil price fluctuations affect the cost of desalted water significantly, whereas Nuclear power offers long term availability of indigenous fuel as well as long term fuel price stability. It has minimal environmental impact compared with other conventional Desalination processes. This paper will discuss the potential of application of Nuclear Desalination in the Arabian Gulf countries. Various processes will be reviewed and most appropriate method selected.
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potential of Nuclear Desalination in the arabian gulf countries
Desalination, 2001Co-Authors: Ibrahim S AlmutazAbstract:Abstract Arabian Gulf countries are located in an arid area with limited water resources. Hydrological investigations point to large resources of underground water, but they are saline and need to be desalted. The best choice for providing fresh water in the Arabian Gulf countries is through seawater Desalination with ground water as a back up. About 65% of Desalination plants that are in operation worldwide are located in the Arabian Gulf countries, most of which are the dual-purpose multistage flash (MSF) plants, producing power and water. Reverse osmosis (RO) is used mainly for brackish water treatment and a limited number of multiple effect distillation (MED) plants are used in the Arabian Gulf countries. The use of Nuclear Desalination is practically essential in these countries where massive quantities of water are desalinated and there is a fast increase in power demand. These is no technical impediment to the use of Nuclear reactors for supply of either heat or electricity or both to a Desalination plant. However, the cost effectiveness of Nuclear Desalination is a site dependent matter. The type of Desalination process and the size and type of the Nuclear reactor have to be determined based on the specific site data. MSF plants are considered as energy intensive processes where energy cost is a major controlling parameter in the overall cost of Desalination. Oil price fluctuations affect the cost of desalted water significantly, whereas Nuclear power offers long term availability of indigenous fuel as well as long term fuel price stability. It has minimal environmental impact compared with other conventional Desalination processes. This paper will discuss the potential of application of Nuclear Desalination in the Arabian Gulf countries. Various processes will be reviewed and most appropriate method selected.
S Nisan - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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extraction of rubidium from the concentrated brine rejected by integrated Nuclear Desalination systems
Desalination and Water Treatment, 2009Co-Authors: S Nisan, C Poletiko, F Laffore, N SimonAbstract:Rubidium is one of the elements present in the concentrated brine rejected by Desalination systems. In view of the potentially high price of the pure metal, it is worthwhile to investigate its extraction, even though presently the available Rb resources are adequate enough to meet the current demands.Two methods have been reported. The first makes use of the ion-exchange resins and the second of the complexation of Rb with specific molecules (calixarenes) followed by one or more nanofiltration/reverse osmosis (NF/RO) stages. First results of calculations indicate that the two methods would be technically very attractive but much experimentation would still be required before an industrial scale extraction process can be evolved.
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extraction of uranium from the concentrated brine rejected by integrated Nuclear Desalination plants
Desalination, 2009Co-Authors: H Sodaye, S Nisan, S Prabhakar, C Poletiko, P K TewariAbstract:This work was carried out under the specific collaboration agreement between the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) from India and the Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique (CEA) from France. This paper summarises first results of review and research on the possible extraction of uranium from the concentrated brine rejected by integrated Nuclear Desalination systems, which both partners are currently developing in the two organisations. Three innovative and efficient methods of uranium extraction have been proposed: 1) Resin grafted with calixarene: this method has the advantage of very high selectivity. Its performances, especially for large-scale extraction, still need further RD 2) Magnetic separations: yet another method with high selectivity, easy separation and affording high degree of material recovery. The method, however, is in developmental stage; 3) Canal system with Braid adsorbents: high selectivity. Appears to be feasible in conjunction with existing technology. It would nonetheless require large amounts of adsorbents and adequate infrastructure.
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financing of an integrated Nuclear Desalination system in developing countries
Desalination, 2007Co-Authors: N Bouzguenda, S Nisan, M AlbouyAbstract:This paper focuses on a case study of financing a project of an integrated Nuclear Desalination system at la Skhira site in Tunisia. More specifically, it shows the financial characteristics of this project, known as TUNDESAL, the main financing mechanisms that can be used, and the principal actions required to attract the potential investors and lenders. The paper describes the basic requirements for the deployment of Nuclear energy in a developing or an emerging country, with no previous experience of Nuclear power; the specific financial considerations corresponding to the particular characteristics of Nuclear Desalination projects: high capital costs, high level of risks and uncertainties related in particular to long construction lead times and social and environmental concerns; the main risks of these projects; the profitability study of the TUNDESAL project: application of the discounted cash flow analysis; the main financing sources for the project; the financing schemes that can be used for project implementation and comparison between these schemes in terms of benefits generated, after covering project costs and repayment of lenders and investors; the main actions to be done for making the project financially attractive in order to gain the confidence of investors and international financial institutions (optimal allocation of project risks and uncertainties, a suitable and flexible energy and water tariffs policy, etc.). The analysis has shown that in particular conditions of Tunisia, the most attractive financial scheme could be the “project financing + leasing”.
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economic evaluation of Nuclear Desalination systems
Desalination, 2007Co-Authors: S Nisan, S DardourAbstract:This paper describes the detailed analyses of power and water costs for several Nuclear reactors operating in a cogeneration mode (e.g. the 900 MWe French PWR, the advanced PWR, AP-600, the gas cooled, high temperature reactors, such as the GT-MHR and the PBMR) and coupled to two main Desalination processes, e.g. multiple effect distillation (MED) and reverse osmosis (RO). Results for a specific site in a south Mediterranean country, Tunisia, are presented. It is shown in particular how the Desalination costs could be further reduced by utilising waste heat from the GT-MHR and the PBMR type of reactors. Comparisons are made with Desalination costs from the cheapest of fossil energy based systems, namely the 600 MWe gas turbine, combined cycle plant (CC-600) in various cost scenarios and in conditions specific to the selected site. Calculations are performed using the DEEP-3 software, recently developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In the light of the results obtained, it is concluded that: a) Compared to the CC-600 system, all Nuclear Desalination options lead to much lower power production costs, as long as gas prices are ≥150 $/toe, and for discount rates of 5, 8 and 10%. Thus for example, at 8% discount rate and a gas price of 40 $/bbl (291 $/toe) for the CC-600, the kWh cost of the PWR-900 is 56% lower. Under the same conditions, that of the AP-600 is 49% lower; b) If the economic performances of the GTMHR and the PBMR, as announced by their respective developers, are indeed true than the GT-MHR would lead to the lowest kWh costs of all options considered. The kWh cost of the PBMR would be comparable to the large sized PWR-900; c) At 8% discount rate, the MED Desalination cost by the PWR-900 and the AP-600 are respectively 46 and 42% lower than the corresponding cost by the CC-600 plant; d) The lowest costs with the MED plants are obtained by the GT-MHR and PBMR, utilising virtually free waste heat. Compared to the cost by the CC-600 + MED system, these reactors give Desalination costs which are respectively 62% and 44% lower; e) For all energy sources, the Desalination cost with the RO process is lower than with the MED process.
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extraction of strategic materials from the concentrated brine rejected by integrated Nuclear Desalination systems
Desalination, 2005Co-Authors: Le J Dirach, S Nisan, C PoletikoAbstract:Abstract Seawater usually contains sixty elements from the Periodic Table. The brine, rejected by a Desalination unit, is a concentrate of all compounds contained by seawater. However, some of the elements are very scarce on land and/or are very expensive. There is thus a strong motivation for extracting these materials. Current practice in countries using large-scale Desalination is to reject brine back to the sea. Increasing ecological objections are now being voiced since this rejection leads to a degradation of local fauna and flora. Extraction of materials and subsequent brine conditioning for surface storage would therefore be also another advantage for these integrated Desalination plants, making them more environmentally friendly. This paper summarizes our preliminary investigations to achieve the above objectives. Elements of interest were first selected on the basis of several economic, physical-chemical and technical criteria. Research was then undertaken to elaborate a common extraction method. After several different solutions, the protocol finally retained comprises a first extraction of Phosphorus through purification by alum. The next step is the recovery of Caesium through an innovative liquid–liquid extraction approach, based on the use of Calixarenes. Indium is then recovered by another liquid–liquid extraction with the help of organic acids. In the final phase germanium and magnesium are extracted. The remaining solution is principally composed of sodium and potassium chlorides, which are separated by hot lixiviation techniques, using the different solubilities of NaCl and KCl. The protocol of extraction thus elaborated would now require exhaustive economic evaluation and experimental verification. These are currently in progress.
P K Tewari - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Thermal coupling system analysis of a Nuclear Desalination plant
International Journal of Nuclear Desalination, 2010Co-Authors: Arup Kumar Adak, V. K. Srivastava, P K TewariAbstract:When a Nuclear reactor is used to supply steam for a Desalination plant, the method of coupling has a significant technical and economic impact. The exact method of coupling depends on the type of reactor and the type of Desalination plant. As a part of Nuclear Desalination Demonstration Project (NDDP), BARC has successfully commissioned a 4500 m 3 /day multi-stage flash Desalination plant coupled to Madras Atomic Power Station at Kalpakkam. A Desalination plant coupled to Nuclear reactor of pressurised heavy water reactor type is a good example of dual-purpose Nuclear Desalination plant. This paper presents the thermal coupling system analysis of this plant along with technical and safety aspects.
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Safety analysis of hybrid Nuclear Desalination plant coupled to High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor
2010 2nd International Conference on Reliability Safety and Hazard - Risk-Based Technologies and Physics-of-Failure Methods (ICRESH), 2010Co-Authors: Abhijit Raha, I.s. Rao, V. K. Srivastava, P K TewariAbstract:High Temperature Gas cooled Reactors (HTGRs) are designed to have relatively higher thermal efficiency and enhanced safety & environmental characteristics. It can provide energy for combined production of hydrogen, electricity and other industrial applications. The waste heat available in the HTGR power cycle can also be utilized for Desalination of seawater for producing potable water. Desalination is an energy intensive process, so use of waste heat from HTGR certainly makes Desalination process more economical. Design of coupling system of Desalination plant with HTGR as per the safety design requirement of Nuclear Desalination plant is very crucial. The paper describes the design of the coupling system of hybrid Multi Effect Desalination-Reverse Osmosis (MED-RO) Nuclear Desalination plant with HTGR to utilize the waste heat in HTGR is discussed. It also discusses the deterministic safety analysis of the coupling system is presented in detail. The analysis shows that the coupling system meets the acceptance criteria for all the Postulated Initiating Events (PIE's) limited to Design Basis Accident (DBA).
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extraction of uranium from the concentrated brine rejected by integrated Nuclear Desalination plants
Desalination, 2009Co-Authors: H Sodaye, S Nisan, S Prabhakar, C Poletiko, P K TewariAbstract:This work was carried out under the specific collaboration agreement between the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) from India and the Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique (CEA) from France. This paper summarises first results of review and research on the possible extraction of uranium from the concentrated brine rejected by integrated Nuclear Desalination systems, which both partners are currently developing in the two organisations. Three innovative and efficient methods of uranium extraction have been proposed: 1) Resin grafted with calixarene: this method has the advantage of very high selectivity. Its performances, especially for large-scale extraction, still need further RD 2) Magnetic separations: yet another method with high selectivity, easy separation and affording high degree of material recovery. The method, however, is in developmental stage; 3) Canal system with Braid adsorbents: high selectivity. Appears to be feasible in conjunction with existing technology. It would nonetheless require large amounts of adsorbents and adequate infrastructure.
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Nuclear Desalination by waste heat utilisation in an advanced heavy water reactor
International Journal of Nuclear Desalination, 2007Co-Authors: A K Adak, I.s. Rao, V. K. Srivastava, P K TewariAbstract:The use of thorium for Nuclear power generation is an important element of the Indian atomic energy programme. The design and development of the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is a step in this direction. Intensive design activity is underway to set up a 300-MWe AHWR. The design of the AHWR incorporates several features to simplify the design and to eliminate certain systems and components, making it economically competitive with other available options for power generation. Utilisation of low-grade or waste heat is an additional feature incorporated in the overall design of the reactor system. A proposal to utilise waste heat from the Main Heat Transport (MHT) purification circuit to produce high-quality desalinated water by the low-temperature evaporation process has been envisaged. This paper presents the proposed Nuclear Desalination system utilising MHT purification circuit waste heat of AHWR along with its coupling arrangement and technical details.
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safety and reliability aspects of seawater reverse osmosis Desalination plant of Nuclear Desalination demonstration project
International Journal of Nuclear Desalination, 2007Co-Authors: Saly T Panicker, P K TewariAbstract:Desalination systems are mostly based on membrane (RO) and thermal (MSF and MED) processes. High-pressure operation and high level of corrosion are the major aspects of concern in a Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) Plant. Selection of the appropriate material for construction and the following of the proper design, fabrication and testing codes, and safe operational procedures ensure the safety of the plant. Proper selection of feed seawater source, provision of standby equipment, proper instrumentation and controls, and periodical maintenance improve the reliability. When the Desalination plant is integrated into a Nuclear power plant, safety measures have to be more stringent, in order to achieve smooth operation and public acceptance. In this paper, the safety and reliability aspects of SWRO Desalination plants are discussed in detail, including the case study of an SWRO plant integrated with a Nuclear Desalination system.
Imad Khamis - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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IAEA coordinated research activity on Nuclear Desalination: The quest for new technologies and techno-economic assessment
Desalination, 2016Co-Authors: Imad Khamis, Rami Salah El-emamAbstract:A coordinated research project (CRP) on new technologies for seawater Desalination using Nuclear energy was conducted by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The CRP goal was to quest for innovative seawater Desalination technologies which can be integrated with the existing Nuclear power plants, could make seawater Desalination using Nuclear energy more viable, and promote the exchange of technical information on national programs in the field of seawater Desalination using Nuclear energy. Other activities carried out within this CRP include conducting preliminary feasibility analysis for Nuclear seawater Desalination based on national site specifics, economic and life cycle assessment of Nuclear seawater Desalination projects, and scoping of new ideas to improve the IAEA Desalination Economic Evaluation Program (DEEP). Among other outcomes, the CRP identified several potential technologies which can make Nuclear Desalination a more viable option such as: heat pipe, the low temperature Multi-Effect Desalination (MED), enhanced Reverse Osmosis (RO) at elevated temperature, and hybrid low temperature Desalination processes. This paper summarises the activities carried out by participating Member States and the results achieved. Elaboration on different Nuclear Desalination technologies is provided. It also presents an overview of the financial model suggested for further improvement of the IAEA DEEP tool.
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Sensitivity analysis and probabilistic assessment of seawater Desalination costs fueled by Nuclear and fossil fuel
Energy Policy, 2014Co-Authors: K.c. Kavvadias, Imad KhamisAbstract:The reliable supply of water and energy is an important prerequisite for sustainable development. Desalination is a feasible option that can solve the problem of water scarcity in some areas, but it is a very energy intensive technology. Moreover, the rising cost of fossil fuel, its uncertain availability and associated environmental concerns have led to a need for future Desalination plants to use other energy sources, such as renewables and Nuclear. Nuclear Desalination has thus the potential to be an important option for safe, economic and reliable supply of large amounts of fresh water to meet the ever-increasing worldwide water demand. Different approaches to use Nuclear power for seawater Desalination have been considered including utilisation of the waste heat from Nuclear reactors to further reduce the cost of Nuclear Desalination. Various options to implement Nuclear Desalination relay mainly on policy making based on socio-economic and environmental impacts of available technologies. This paper examines Nuclear Desalination costs and proposes a methodology for exploring interactions between critical parameters.
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potential of heat pipe technology in Nuclear seawater Desalination
Desalination, 2009Co-Authors: Hussam Jouhara, Vladimir Anastasov, Imad KhamisAbstract:Heat pipe technology may play a decisive role in improving the overall economics, and public perception on Nuclear Desalination, specifically on seawater Desalination. When coupled to the Low-Temperature Multi-Effect Distillation process, heat pipes could effectively harness most of the waste heat generated in various types of Nuclear power reactors. Indeed, the potential application of heat pipes could be seen as a viable option to Nuclear seawater Desalination where the efficiency to harness waste heat might not only be enhanced to produce larger quantities of potable water, but also to reduce the environmental impact of Nuclear Desalination process. Furthermore, the use of heat pipe-based heat recovery systems in Desalination plant may improve the overall thermodynamics of the Desalination process, as well as help to ensure that the product water is free from any contamination which occur under normal process, thus preventing operational failure occurrences as this would add an extra loop preventing direct contact between radiation and the produced water. In this paper, a new concept for Nuclear Desalination system based on heat pipe technology is introduced and the anticipated reduction in the tritium level resulting from the use of heat pipe systems is discussed.
Toshio Konishi - One of the best experts on this subject based on the ideXlab platform.
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Nuclear Desalination a viable option for producing freshwater
Desalination, 2003Co-Authors: Ron S Faibish, Toshio KonishiAbstract:Abstract A comprehensive overview of the International Atomic Energy Agency's (IAEA's) activities in the area of Nuclear Desalination (i.e., the production of freshwater via seawater Desalination using Nuclear energy as the thermal and/or electrical energy source) is provided. Past, present and future activities and projects are discussed, with emphasis on practical past experience in Member States around the world and current plans for present and future Nuclear Desalination operations. Of particular interest is a new Nuclear Desalination demonstration plant in Kalpakkam, India (6,300 m 3 /d hybrid RO-MSF plant coupled to aPressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)), which is scheduled to be commissioned sometime in 2003, and plans for the accelerated implementation of another Nuclear Desalination demonstration facility (4,500 m 3 /d MED coupled to a PH WR) in Karachi, Pakistan. Other related activities are also presented, including a technical overview of feasible coupling configurations of Nuclear energy sources and Desalination processes as well as assessment of economic competitiveness of Nuclear Desalination with conventional Desalination operations. The overall intent is to demonstrate that production of potable and other grades of water to supplement the increasingly scarce water resources around the world is an option that should be considered by coastal countries, which are suffering or will soon suffer serious water shortages.
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optimization of the coupling of Nuclear reactors and Desalination systems report on the iaea coordinated research program
2003Co-Authors: Toshio Konishi, Juergen Kupitz, Mohamed M MegahedAbstract:Energy and water are essential elements for human existence. Increasing demands worldwide, especially in the developing world, are being intensified both in energy and in freshwater. In many developing countries, the option of combining Nuclear energy with seawater Desalination is being explored to tackle these two problems. In 1998, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) launched a Coordinated Research Project (CRP) on the "Optimization of the Coupling of Nuclear Reactors and Desalination Systems", with the participation of research institutes from interested IAEA Member States. The Research Project focused on the following four main topics: 1) Nuclear reactor design intended for coupling with Desalination systems 2) Optimization of thermal coupling of NSSS and Desalination systems 3) Performance improvement of Desalination systems for coupling 4) Advance Desalination technologies for Nuclear Desalination The current CRP has been evaluating various coupling configurations of Nuclear reactors and Desalination systems. Reactor types evaluated in the optimization include a PHWR, PWRs and dedicated heat reactors. The present paper summarizes the overall findings in the CRP, highlighting design optimisation, safety and some economic considerations.
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Nuclear seawater Desalination iaea activities and economic evaluation for southern europe
Desalination, 1999Co-Authors: Peter J Gowin, Toshio KonishiAbstract:Abstract The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has addressed the issue of seawater Desalination for potable water production with renewed intensity since 1989. It has been found that there are no technical impediments to the use of Nuclear reactors as an energy source for seawater Desalination. Highlights of projects regarding Nuclear Desalination in several of the IAEA Member States are described, such as a feasibility study in Morocco using a Chinese heating reactor and facilities in India. The role of Nuclear energy in the next century is discussed; economics, security of supply and the overall goal of a sound energy mix in national energy plans have been considerations in the choice of Nuclear power along with an awarenness of its environmental benefits. The IAEA has developed a computer software package, Desalination Economic Evaluation Programme (DEEP), used for the economic comparison of different seawater Desalination options. Its economic evaluation methodology is described. In 1998, the IAEA initiated the most comprehensive comparative study to date on Nuclear seawater Desalination of its kind. The DEEP software was used for the economic comparison of different seawater Desalination options after a validation of the software by international experts. The study was conducted for three different regions of the world, being described by different labour costs, interest rates, and seawater conditions; in each region two economic scenarios were calculated, favouring Nuclear and fossil options, respectively. Reverse osmosis, multi-effect distillation and multi-stage flash were chosen as Desalination technologies to be coupled to ten selected power options, including pressurized water reactors and pressurized heavy water reactors, as well as to fossil-fueled plants (coal and combined cycle). Results are presented for the region of southern Europe. Without considering all input data in detail, and also taking into account results from previous studies, it was found that Nuclear and fossil Desalination yield water costs in the same range. More specific results and findings regarding a comparison between Nuclear and fossil options are given in the paper. The Desalination of seawater using Nuclear energy is a cost competitive and feasible option for potable water production.
